GSS InfoBrief, January 2023

National Center for Science and
Engineering Statistics

InfoBrief

2021 Graduate Enrollment in Science, Engineering, and
Health Fields at All-Time High as Postdocs Continue to
Decline
NSF 23-311 | January 2023
Jonathan Gordon, Christopher Davies, Caren Arbeit, and Michael I. Yamaner

Enrollment patterns for students pursuing graduate degrees in science, engineering, and selected
health (SEH) fields have been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The enrollment declines seen in
2020 among temporary visa holders and first-time, full-time master’s and doctoral students were
reversed in 2021 by matriculation increases in doctoral and especially master’s students. Enrollment
increases were driven by a 44.3% increase in first-time, full-time master’s students and by a 13.4%
increase in first-time, full-time doctoral students between 2020 and 2021. Full-time master’s enrollment
in 2021 was 287,022, while full-time doctoral enrollment was 256,980. These numbers represent the
highest enrollments reported since separate data for master’s and doctoral students became available
in 2017 (figure 1, table 1). Conversely, overall postdoctoral (postdoc) appointments declined by 3.6%
since 2020 and by 2.2% since 2017. Postdoc declines were seen across all broad field groups between
2020 and 2021: -4.1% in science fields, -1.3% in engineering fields, and -3.8% in health fields. These data
align with 5-year trends reported by the 2020 Survey of Earned Doctorates, which showed declines in
the percentage of recent doctorate recipients committing to postdoc positions, and support several
recent anecdotal accounts documented by journalists of postdoc recruiting challenges and position
vacancies across science and engineering (S&E) disciplines.1

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

Figure 1
Graduate enrollment, by citizenship and enrollment status: 2017–21

0

Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

 2

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

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Table 1
Graduate enrollment in science, engineering, and health, by degree level, enrollment status, citizenship, sex, ethnicity, and race: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Master's

Doctoral
Percent change

Characteristic

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

133,577

142,659

153,696

170,619

179,799

34.6

Male
Female
Hispanic or Latino
Not Hispanic or Latino
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White
More than one race
Unknown race and ethnicity
Temporary visa holders
Male
Female
Full-time students

110,575
59,703
50,872
12,306

430
11,268
11,420
228
64,088
3,123
7,712
23,002
15,148
7,854
245,010

121,757
64,500
57,257
13,912

534
12,675
12,584
228
69,311
3,665
8,848
20,902
13,357
7,545
248,552

133,180
69,495
63,685
16,182

581
14,401
13,615
257
75,359
4,045
8,740
20,516
12,888
7,628
254,532

146,539
75,037
71,502
19,314

562
16,531
14,853
284
81,476
4,692
8,827
24,080
14,819
9,261
243,859

158,959
78,751
80,208
21,819

612
18,935
16,227
280
86,935
5,316
8,835
20,840
12,525
8,315
287,022

U.S. citizens and permanent residentsa
Male
Female
Hispanic or Latino
Not Hispanic or Latino
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White
More than one race
Unknown race and ethnicity
Temporary visa holders
Male
Female

141,321
60,203
81,118
17,316

706
14,825
11,846
240
83,943
4,996
7,449
103,689
65,694
37,995

149,533
62,052
87,481
19,011

685
15,882
13,294
269
86,699
5,455
8,238
99,019
61,405
37,614

154,190
62,191
91,999
20,595

746
16,900
13,983
285
88,477
5,548
7,656
100,342
61,194
39,148

167,766
66,803
100,963
24,436

722
18,544
15,989
294
93,614
6,377
7,790
76,093
45,489
30,604

178,932
69,806
109,126
26,901

742
21,707
16,933
319
97,765
6,987
7,578
108,090
65,825
42,265

Part-time students
U.S. citizens and permanent residentsa

2017–21 2020–21

Percent change
2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2017–21 2020–21

5.4

34,747

34,199

33,979

35,679

36,702

5.6

2.9

43.8
31.9
57.7
77.3

42.3
68.0
42.1
22.8
35.6
70.2
14.6
-9.4
-17.3
5.9
17.1

8.5
4.9
12.2
13.0

8.9
14.5
9.3
-1.4
6.7
13.3
0.1
-13.5
-15.5
-10.2
17.7

25,508
13,000
12,508
2,064

168
1,960
2,140
45
17,056
604
1,471
9,239
6,103
3,136
235,778

25,133
12,752
12,381
2,152

133
1,961
2,199
44
16,482
697
1,465
9,066
6,010
3,056
242,897

25,327
12,952
12,375
2,302

137
2,127
2,478
43
16,121
741
1,378
8,652
5,719
2,933
247,910

25,818
12,934
12,884
2,550

158
2,061
2,503
40
16,204
784
1,518
9,861
6,374
3,487
247,656

27,417
13,457
13,960
2,662

175
2,220
2,869
42
17,075
913
1,461
9,285
5,894
3,391
256,980

7.5
3.5
11.6
29.0

4.2
13.3
34.1
-6.7
0.1
51.2
-0.7
0.5
-3.4
8.1
9.0

6.2
4.0
8.4
4.4

10.8
7.7
14.6
5.0
5.4
16.5
-3.8
-5.8
-7.5
-2.8
3.8

26.6
16.0
34.5
55.4

5.1
46.4
42.9
32.9
16.5
39.9
1.7
4.2
0.2
11.2

6.7
4.5
8.1
10.1

2.8
17.1
5.9
8.5
4.4
9.6
-2.7
42.0
44.7
38.1

139,077
73,517
65,560
12,935

546
13,992
7,343
190
92,215
4,816
7,040
96,701
63,079
33,622

142,158
73,849
68,309
14,009

580
14,789
7,866
189
93,243
5,047
6,435
100,739
65,408
35,331

143,807
73,699
70,108
15,388

613
15,416
7,972
159
92,588
5,279
6,392
104,103
66,857
37,246

146,928
74,278
72,650
16,379

600
15,958
8,571
160
92,761
5,726
6,773
100,728
64,179
36,549

150,604
74,443
76,161
17,829

574
17,384
9,318
153
92,560
6,257
6,529
106,376
66,712
39,664

8.3
1.3
16.2
37.8

5.1
24.2
26.9
-19.5
0.4
29.9
-7.3
10.0
5.8
18.0

2.5
0.2
4.8
8.9

-4.3
8.9
8.7
-4.4
-0.2
9.3
-3.6
5.6
3.9
8.5

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Table 1
Graduate enrollment in science, engineering, and health, by degree level, enrollment status, citizenship, sex, ethnicity, and race: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Master's

Doctoral
Percent change

Characteristic
First-time, full-time students
U.S. citizens and permanent residentsa
Male
Female
Hispanic or Latino
Not Hispanic or Latino
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White
More than one race
Unknown race and ethnicity
Temporary visa holders
Male
Female

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2017–21 2020–21

110,980

114,214

116,507

102,096

147,302

32.7

64,513
27,523
36,990
7,694

285
7,445
5,429
102
37,642
2,440
3,476
46,467
28,944
17,523

67,821
28,480
39,341
8,618

291
7,966
5,789
138
38,837
2,480
3,702
46,393
28,372
18,021

68,897
28,005
40,892
9,034

314
8,487
6,188
136
39,055
2,498
3,185
47,610
28,568
19,042

79,715
32,396
47,319
11,483

306
9,685
7,664
135
44,007
3,063
3,372
22,381
12,678
9,703

82,497
32,825
49,672
12,208

335
11,202
7,609
151
44,465
3,295
3,232
64,805
40,053
24,752

27.9
19.3
34.3
58.7

17.5
50.5
40.2
48.0
18.1
35.0
-7.0
39.5
38.4
41.3

Percent change
2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

44.3

45,177

45,510

46,525

41,173

46,696

3.4

13.4

3.5
1.3
5.0
6.3

9.5
15.7
-0.7
11.9
1.0
7.6
-4.2
189.6
215.9
155.1

26,902
13,859
13,043
2,823

89
2,701
1,522
24
17,503
1,099
1,141
18,275
11,693
6,582

27,009
13,558
13,451
2,921

100
2,954
1,593
39
17,291
1,062
1,049
18,501
11,676
6,825

27,177
13,366
13,811
3,267

115
3,008
1,637
24
17,067
1,047
1,012
19,348
12,035
7,313

27,744
13,419
14,325
3,383

96
3,153
1,726
27
16,886
1,160
1,313
13,429
8,193
5,236

27,533
12,706
14,827
3,670

85
3,328
2,041
33
16,070
1,196
1,110
19,163
11,709
7,454

2.3
-8.3
13.7
30.0

-4.5
23.2
34.1
37.5
-8.2
8.8
-2.7
4.9
0.1
13.2

-0.8
-5.3
3.5
8.5

-11.5
5.6
18.3
22.2
-4.8
3.1
-15.5
42.7
42.9
42.4

a Race and ethnicity data are available for U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.

Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

2017–21 2020–21

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These and other findings in this report are from the 2021 Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and
Engineering (GSS), with comparisons to data from 2017 to 2021. Data from the GSS provide insight into the composition
of the current and future S&E workforce by collecting data on graduate students in SEH fields, postdocs, and doctorateholding nonfaculty researchers (NFRs). The GSS is sponsored by the National Center for Science and Engineering
Statistics (NCSES) within the National Science Foundation and by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Trends in Enrollment, by Citizenship
The declines in master’s full-time enrollment between 2019 and 2020 reversed in 2021, with enrollment growing from
243,859 in 2020 to 287,022 in 2021, a 17.7% increase. Full-time doctoral enrollment, which was stable between 2019 and
2020, increased by 3.8%, from 247,656 in 2020 to 256,980 in 2021. Part-time enrollment increased by 5.4% over the same
period (to 179,799) for master’s students and by 2.9% (to 36,702) for doctoral students. The 5-year trend for part-time
master’s students shows an increase of more than a third—with enrollments up 34.6% from 2017 to 2021—while doctoral
part-time enrollment increased 5.6% over the same period (table 1, figure 1).

Temporary Visa Holders
The enrollment of temporary visa holders in SEH master’s and doctoral programs declined between 2019 and 2020.
However, enrollments of students on a temporary visa recovered in 2021, led by a 42.0% increase in full-time master’s
students (to 108,090 students), and a 5.6% increase in full-time doctoral students (to 106,373 students). First-time, fulltime enrollments of temporary visa holders increased considerably between 2020 and 2021, with a 189.6% increase for
first-time, full-time master’s students (from 22,381 to 64,805 students), and a 42.7% increase (from 13,429 to 19,163) for
first-time, full-time doctoral students.
Despite this larger-than-average recent growth, over the past 5 years temporary visa holders as a percentage of all
master’s and doctoral students have declined for full- and part-time master’s students and for part-time doctoral students.
The percentage of full-time doctoral students with temporary visas was stable (41.0% in 2017 and 41.4% in 2021) (table 1,
figure 2).

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

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Figure 2
Temporary visa holders' share of graduate enrollment, by degree level and enrollment status: 2017–21

5
0

Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

U.S. Citizens and Permanent Residents
Enrollment of U.S. citizens and permanent residents increased from 2020 to 2021 for both degree levels (master’s and
doctoral) and enrollment status (part time and full time). Among U.S. citizen and permanent residents with first-time, fulltime enrollment between 2020 and 2021, the number of master’s students increased 3.5% (from 79,715 to 82,497) but the
number of doctoral students declined slightly (from 27,744 to 27,533, or -0.8%) (table 1).
Year-over-year enrollment patterns by sex, race, and ethnicity were variable. Enrollment of female full-time master’s and
doctoral students increased by 8.1% (8,163 students) and 4.8% (3,511 students), respectively. Meanwhile, male full-time
master’s and doctoral student enrollment increased by a more modest 4.5% (3,003 students) and 0.2% (165 students),
respectively (table 1).
Enrollment among Hispanic or Latino and Black or African American graduate students showed continued annual growth.
Hispanic or Latino full-time master’s enrollment increased by 10.1% (2,465 students) from 2020 to 2021, while doctoral
enrollment increased by 8.9% (1,450 students). Over the same period, Black or African American full-time enrollment
increased by 5.9% for master's students (944 students) and by 8.7% for doctoral students (747 students). Asian full-time
master’s and doctoral enrollments increased by 17.1% (3,163 students) and by 8.9% (1,426 students), respectively.
Meanwhile, White enrollment increased by 4.4% (4,151 students) for full-time master’s students but declined by 0.2% (-201
students) for full-time doctoral students (table 1).

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

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Viewed over a 5-year period, students who are underrepresented minorities (URM)—Hispanic or Latino, Black or African
American, and American Indian or Alaska Native—have increased their overall representation among all U.S. citizen and
permanent resident graduate students regardless of degree level or enrollment status. For example, URM constituted
15.0% of all full-time doctoral students in 2017 and 18.4% in 2021. For full-time master’s students, URM represented
21.1% of the total enrollment in 2017 and 24.9% in 2021 (table 1, figure 3).
Figure 3
Underrepresented minorities' share of graduate enrollment, by degree level and enrollment status: 2017–21

5

0

Note(s):
Analysis limited to U.S. citizens and permanent residents.
Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

Field of Study Trends for Master’s and Doctoral Students
Master’s and doctoral enrollment in SEH fields increased to an all-time high of 760,503 students in 2021. Enrollment grew
between 2020 and 2021 across nearly all broad fields at both degree levels—master’s enrollment increased in every broad
field, while doctoral enrollment increased in all but two fields (mathematics and statistics; electrical, electronics,
communications and computer engineering) (table 2).
In 2020, the GSS revised its field taxonomy to align with an updated NCSES Taxonomy of Disciplines (TOD) and National
Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP). The revisions resulted in some
disciplines moving between broad fields; in these cases, the changes in broad field counts in 2020 reflect the updated
taxonomy rather than change in enrollment or employment. See “Data Sources and Limitations” for more information.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

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Table 2
Graduate enrollment in science, engineering, and health, by degree level and field: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Master's

Characteristic
All graduate students
Science and engineering
Science
Agricultural and veterinary sciences
Biological and biomedical sciences
Computer and information sciences
Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean
sciences
Mathematics and statistics
Multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies
Natural resources and conservation
Physical sciences
Psychology
Social sciences
Engineering
Aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical
engineering
Biological, biomedical, and biosystems
engineering
Chemical, petroleum, and chemical-related
engineering
Civil, environmental, transportation and related
engineering fields
Electrical, electronics, communications and
computer engineering
Industrial, manufacturing, systems engineering
and operations research
Mechanical engineering
Metallurgical, mining, materials and related
engineering fields
Other engineering
Health
Clinical medicine

2017

2018

2019

2020

Doctoral

2021

378,587 391,211 408,228 414,478 466,821
325,925 334,391 351,734 354,354 401,059
229,169 241,327 259,795 267,904 305,949
5,603
5,658
5,629
6,487
6,801
33,926 35,306 38,078 39,920 42,775
75,618 77,351 84,092 80,690 102,232

Percent change

Percent change

2017–
21

2017–
21

2020–
21

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2020–
21

23.3
23.1
33.5
21.4
26.1
35.2

12.6 270,525 277,096 281,889 283,335 293,682
13.2 255,224 261,165 265,961 268,021 277,022
14.2 186,399 190,928 193,896 196,742 204,077
4.8
3,744
3,880
3,889
4,313
4,443
7.2 51,291 52,627 53,915 54,905 58,213
26.7 14,291 16,127 17,192 18,174 19,574

8.6
8.5
9.5
18.7
13.5
37.0

3.7
3.4
3.7
3.0
6.0
7.7

6,006
16,568
6,923
7,311
6,368
29,638
41,208
96,756

5,629
18,073
7,414
7,691
6,075
35,404
42,726
93,064

5,327
19,594
8,203
8,066
6,361
40,838
43,607
91,939

5,277
18,284
10,980
8,793
6,275
47,279
43,919
86,450

5,520
20,639
11,997
10,021
6,404
51,936
47,624
95,110

-8.1
24.6
73.3
37.1
0.6
75.2
15.6
-1.7

4.6
12.9
9.3
14.0
2.1
9.9
8.4
10.0

6,539
13,101
2,931
3,568
35,461
20,395
35,078
68,825

6,704
13,388
2,924
3,716
36,000
20,303
35,259
70,237

6,551
13,565
2,978
3,677
36,506
20,231
35,392
72,065

6,515
13,687
3,553
3,705
36,341
21,115
34,434
71,279

6,773
13,619
3,775
3,911
37,747
21,445
34,577
72,945

3.6
4.0
28.8
9.6
6.4
5.1
-1.4
6.0

4.0
-0.5
6.2
5.6
3.9
1.6
0.4
2.3

3,322

3,342

3,701

4,326

5,065

52.5

17.1

2,386

2,506

2,554

2,645

2,776

16.3

5.0

4,108

4,282

4,424

4,536

5,194

26.4

14.5

7,008

7,481

7,934

8,239

8,879

26.7

7.8

4,208

3,815

3,274

2,942

2,983

-29.1

1.4

7,536

7,599

7,664

7,612

7,718

2.4

1.4

13,506

12,729

11,873

10,819

11,730

-13.1

8.4

7,626

7,732

7,752

7,485

7,880

3.3

5.3

29,816

28,108

28,177

25,312

27,687

-7.1

9.4

17,936

18,119

18,577

17,720

17,572

-2.0

-0.8

12,272
16,279

12,389
15,434

11,912
14,861

11,030
14,305

11,949
15,710

-2.6
-3.5

8.3
9.8

3,633
11,149

3,598
11,159

3,762
11,247

3,839
11,477

3,920
11,539

7.9
3.5

2.1
0.5

2,427
10,818
52,662
25,283

2,395
10,570
56,820
27,494

2,266
11,451
56,494
26,251

2,299
10,881
60,124
29,748

2,516
12,276
65,762
34,068

3.7
13.5
24.9
34.7

9.4
12.8
9.4
14.5

4,655
6,896
15,301
4,410

4,821
7,222
15,931
4,508

4,817
7,758
15,928
4,571

4,882
7,380
15,314
4,796

4,904
7,757
16,660
5,623

5.3
12.5
8.9
27.5

0.5
5.1
8.8
17.2

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Table 2
Graduate enrollment in science, engineering, and health, by degree level and field: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Master's

Characteristic
Other health

Doctoral

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

27,379

29,326

30,243

30,376

31,694

Percent change

Percent change

2017–
21

2017–
21

15.8

2020–
21
4.3

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

10,891

11,423

11,357

10,518

11,037

1.3

2020–
21
4.9

Note(s):
In 2020, the GSS revised its field taxonomy, and the revisions resulted in some disciplines moving between broad fields; see “Data Sources and Limitations” for details. For more information about
fields collected in this survey, please see table A-17 in Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering: Fall 2021.
Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

 10

Master’s Enrollment Trends, by Field
Master’s enrollment in SEH fields soared to a record high of 466,821 students, an increase of 12.6% over 2020 and of
23.3% over 2017. Over the past academic year, master’s enrollment grew in SEH fields by 14.2% (38,045 students), 10.0%
(8,660 students), and 9.4% (5,638 students), respectively. Master’s enrollment in engineering fields increased in 2021 for
the first time in 4 years. Between 2017 and 2021, master’s enrollment in science and health both grew (by 33.5% and
24.9%, respectively), while engineering enrollment contracted by 1.7% (table 2).
Computer and information sciences had the largest numeric and percentage increase in master’s enrollment between
2020 and 2021 at 26.7% (21,542 students). This field accounted for 41.2% of the 1-year growth in master’s enrollment and
remains the largest field for master’s enrollment, with 102,232 students enrolled in 2021, or over a fifth of the master’s
students reported to the GSS. In terms of percentage growth, the next three largest-growing fields were aerospace,
aeronautical, and astronautical engineering (17.1%, or 739 students); clinical medicine (14.5%, or 4,320 students); and
biological, biomedical, and biosystems engineering (14.5%, or 658 students) (table 2).
Master’s enrollment increased across all GSS broad fields from 2020 to 2021. Over a 5-year time span, six fields had
declining enrollment—with all but one of these within the broad field of engineering. Chemical, petroleum, and chemicalrelated engineering had the smallest 1-year growth (1.4%, or 41 students) and the largest 5-year percentage decline
(-29.1%, or -1,225 students). Master’s enrollment in electrical, electronics, communications and computer engineering
experienced the largest numeric decline from 2017 to 2021 (-2,129 students, or 7.1%) (table 2).

Doctoral Enrollment Trends, by Field
Similar to master’s enrollment, doctoral enrollment rose to a record high in 2021 (293,682 students), growing 3.7% (10,347
students) compared to the larger percentage increase in master’s enrollment 12.6% (52,343 students). Among SEH fields
from 2020 to 2021, health grew the most in percentage terms (8.8%, or 1,346 students), followed by science (3.7%, or
7,335 students) and engineering (2.3%, or 1,666 students). The trends between 2017 and 2021 were slightly different:
science fields experienced the greatest percentage increase (9.5%, or 17,678 students), followed by health (8.9%, or 1,359
students) and engineering (6.0%, or 4,120 students) (table 2).
Measured in percentage terms, the top three growing S&E detailed fields between 2020 and 2021 were biological,
biomedical, and biosystems engineering (7.8%, or 640 students); computer and information sciences (7.7%, or 1,400
students); and multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies (6.2%, or 222 students). Biological and biomedical sciences
had the largest numeric increase from 2020 to 2021 (3,308 students) and remains the largest academic field (58,213
students) (table 2).

Trends in Postdocs and Nonfaculty Researchers
Annual trends in postdocs and doctorate-holding NFRs diverged in 2021. Postdoc appointments declined overall and
within each broad field group—science, engineering, and health—while NFRs increased in these same areas. Among all
surveyed fields, postdocs declined by 3.6% (-2,385) from 2020 to 2021 and by 2.2% (-1,437) since 2017. Conversely, NFRs
increased by 3.6% (1,064) between 2020 and 2021 and by 9.0% (2,545) between 2017 and 2021 (table 3).

Table 3
Postdoctoral appointees and nonfaculty researchers, by field: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Postdoctoral appointees

Nonfaculty researchers
Percent
change

Characteristic

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

All surveyed fields

64,733 64,783 66,247 65,681 63,296

2017– 2020–
21
21
-2.2

Percent
change
2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

-3.6 28,180 29,284 30,349 29,661 30,725

2017– 2020–
21
21
9.0

3.6

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

 11

Table 3
Postdoctoral appointees and nonfaculty researchers, by field: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Postdoctoral appointees

Nonfaculty researchers
Percent
change

Characteristic
Science and
engineering
Science
Agricultural and
veterinary sciences
Biological and
biomedical
sciences
Computer and
information
sciences
Geosciences,
atmospheric
sciences, and
ocean sciences
Mathematics and
statistics
Multidisciplinary
and
interdisciplinary
studies
Natural resources
and conservation
Physical sciences
Psychology
Social sciences
Engineering
Aerospace,
aeronautical, and
astronautical
engineering
Biological,
biomedical, and
biosystems
engineering
Chemical,
petroleum, and
chemical-related
engineering
Civil,
environmental,
transportation and
related engineering
fields
Electrical,
electronics,
communications
and computer
engineering

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

46,080 45,478 46,769 47,203 45,526
38,241 37,564 38,503 38,741 37,171

Percent
change

2017– 2020–
21
21

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2017– 2020–
21
21

-1.2
-2.8

-3.6 20,542 21,848 22,728 22,133 22,890
-4.1 17,268 18,278 18,819 18,212 18,809

11.4
8.9

3.4
3.3

1,595

55.8

-4.9

496

565

645

964

906

82.7

-6.0

21,781 21,533 21,847 21,902 20,182

-7.3

-7.9

8,203

8,250

8,229

8,112

8,208

0.1

1.2

1,024

1,072

1,079

1,678

854

879

878

823

878

2.8

6.7

476

515

510

458

457

-4.0

-0.2

2,089

1,726

1,778

1,790

1,799

-13.9

0.5

1,794

2,106

2,177

2,150

2,310

28.8

7.4

991

982

1,070

1,076

1,121

13.1

4.2

240

266

305

201

243

1.3

20.9

1,131

980

972

832

881

-22.1

5.9

806

832

820

679

816

1.2

20.2

731
7,211
1,082
1,347
7,839

764
6,976
1,145
1,507
7,914

806
7,159
1,152
1,762
8,266

845
6,937
1,312
1,546
8,462

908
6,825
1,337
1,645
8,355

24.2
-5.4
23.6
22.1
6.6

7.5
-1.6
1.9
6.4
-1.3

364
2,871
494
1,524
3,274

580
3,056
507
1,601
3,570

582
3,316
576
1,659
3,909

573
2,890
749
1,436
3,921

625
2,935
803
1,506
4,081

71.7
2.2
62.6
-1.2
24.6

9.1
1.6
7.2
4.9
4.1

196

207

227

233

279

42.3

19.7

102

115

124

149

149

46.1

0.0

1,476

1,529

1,602

1,696

1,615

9.4

-4.8

451

491

545

525

597

32.4

13.7

1,262

1,205

1,229

1,157

1,167

-7.5

0.9

340

337

410

330

327

-3.8

-0.9

804

739

865

1,006

968

20.4

-3.8

422

414

492

488

481

14.0

-1.4

1,170

1,197

1,305

1,302

1,273

8.8

-2.2

557

588

637

706

763

37.0

8.1

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

 12

Table 3
Postdoctoral appointees and nonfaculty researchers, by field: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Postdoctoral appointees

Nonfaculty researchers
Percent
change

Characteristic
Industrial,
manufacturing,
systems
engineering and
operations
research
Mechanical
engineering
Metallurgical,
mining, materials
and related
engineering fields
Other engineering
Health
Clinical medicine
Other health

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Percent
change

2017– 2020–
21
21

2017

2018

2019

2020

2017– 2020–
21
21

2021

127

156

167

194

137

7.9

-29.4

119

105

137

155

140

17.6

-9.7

1,089

1,069

1,142

1,149

1,200

10.2

4.4

458

489

531

469

537

17.2

14.5

565
575
665
630
562
1,150 1,237 1,064 1,095 1,154
18,653 19,305 19,478 18,478 17,770
16,100 16,563 16,650 16,287 15,565
2,553 2,742 2,828 2,191 2,205

-0.5
0.3
-4.7
-3.3
-13.6

-10.8
5.4
-3.8
-4.4
0.6

233
592
7,638
6,448
1,190

267
764
7,436
6,159
1,277

303
730
7,621
6,273
1,348

299
800
7,528
6,500
1,028

259
828
7,835
6,758
1,077

11.2
39.9
2.6
4.8
-9.5

-13.4
3.5
4.1
4.0
4.8

Note(s):
In 2020, the GSS revised its field taxonomy, and the revisions resulted in some disciplines moving between broad fields; see “Data Sources and
Limitations” for details. For more information about fields collected in this survey, please see table A-17 in Survey of Graduate Students and
Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering: Fall 2021.
Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

Demographics of Postdocs
The declines in postdoc appointments are unevenly distributed among U.S. citizens and permanent residents and
temporary visa holders. Postdocs holding temporary visas declined by 7.0% (-2,493) between 2020 and 2021 and by 3.8%
(-1,325) since 2017. Postdocs among U.S. citizens and permanent residents increased by 0.4% (108) between 2020 and
2021, while declining by 0.4% (-112) since 2017. Among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, Hispanic or Latino
postdocs increased by 5.7% (115) from 2020 to 2021 and by 29.1% (483) since 2017. Black or African American postdocs
in 2021 increased by 6.6% (71) over the previous year and by 13.1% (133) since 2017 (table 4).

Table 4
Postdoctoral appointees, by citizenship, sex, ethnicity, and race: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Percent change
Characteristic
All surveyed fields
U.S. citizens and permanent residentsa
Male
Female
Hispanic or Latino

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2017–21

2020–21

64,733

64,783

66,247

65,681

63,296

-2.2

-3.6

30,110
16,378
13,732
1,659

29,622
15,934
13,688
1,856

29,452
15,570
13,882
1,924

29,890
15,579
14,311
2,027

29,998
15,623
14,375
2,142

-0.4
-4.6
4.7
29.1

0.4
0.3
0.4
5.7

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

 13

Table 4
Postdoctoral appointees, by citizenship, sex, ethnicity, and race: 2017–21
(Number and percent change)

Percent change
Characteristic
Not Hispanic or Latino
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White
More than one race
Unknown race and ethnicity
Temporary visa holders
Male
Female

2017

125
6,045
1,019
112
17,313
730
3,107
34,623
22,492
12,131

2018

81
6,020
1,104
55
17,232
506
2,768
35,161
22,727
12,434

2019

69
5,891
1,088
52
16,972
519
2,937
36,795
23,603
13,192

2020

72
5,696
1,081
52
17,123
555
3,284
35,791
22,660
13,131

2021

80
6,152
1,152
38
16,422
695
3,317
33,298
20,877
12,421

2017–21

-36.0
1.8
13.1
-66.1
-5.1
-4.8
6.8
-3.8
-7.2
2.4

2020–21

11.1
8.0
6.6
-26.9
-4.1
25.2
1.0
-7.0
-7.9
-5.4

a Race and ethnicity data are available for U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.

Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering.

Field of Research
From 2020 to 2021, trends in postdocs and NFRs continued to diverge with respect to field of research. Postdoc
appointments declined in SEH, while NFR employment increased.
From 2020 to 2021, postdocs declined by 4.1% (-1,570) in science, by 3.8% (-708) in health, and by 1.3% (-107) in
engineering. However, several individual broad fields had notable 1-year percentage gains. The top three growing fields for
postdoc appointments by percentage were aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering (19.7%, or 46), natural
resources and conservation (7.5%, or 63), and computer and information sciences (6.7%, or 55). Biological and biomedical
sciences remained the largest field for postdoc appointments with 20,182 postdocs, but it reported the largest numeric
loses across all fields from both 2017 (-1,599 postdocs) and 2020 (-1,720 postdocs). From 2017 to 2021, only engineering
had an increase (6.6%, or 516 postdocs), led by a 20.4% (164 postdocs) increase in civil, environmental, transportation and
related engineering fields (table 3).
In 2021, NFR employment increased from both 2017 (9.0%, or 2,545 NFRs) and 2020 (3.6%, or 1,064 NFRs). From 2020 to
2021, mathematics and statistics had the largest 1-year percentage increase (20.9%, or 42 NFRs), while clinical medicine
had the largest numeric increase (4.0%, or 258 NFRs). Similar to postdoc employment, biological and biomedical sciences
remained the largest field for NFR employment, with 8,208 NFRs reported. From 2017 to 2021, notable 5-year gains were
seen in agricultural and veterinary sciences (up 82.7%, or 410 NFRs), natural resources and conservation (up 71.7%, or 261
NFRs), and psychology (up 62.6%, or 309 NFRs) (table 3).

Data Sources and Limitations
Conducted since 1966, the GSS is an annual survey of all academic institutions in the United States that grant researchbased master’s or doctoral degrees in SEH fields. The 2021 GSS collected data from 21,365 organizational units
(departments, programs, affiliated research centers, and health care facilities) at 699 eligible institutions and their
affiliates in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The unit response rate was 98.2%. An overview of the survey is
available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvygradpostdoc/.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

 14

In 2020, the GSS amended its taxonomy to align with a revised NCSES TOD and 2020 NCES CIP. The 2017 to 2019 GSS
counts were not reclassified using the 2020 CIP. Unlike the taxonomy changes in 2017, the only newly ineligible CIP codes
were those dropped by the 2020 CIP. As such, these changes did not lead to a large shift in overall reported GSS counts,
and data remain comparable to data from 2017 to 2019. Additionally, new CIP codes, such as data science and medical
clinical sciences, were added, along with other codes in GSS-eligible series; while these CIP codes are newly eligible, a
review of unit names from prior years indicates that many of them were being reported prior to 2020. Some additional
adjustments to allow for further detail in some fields were made to the GSS taxonomy based on the 2020 CIP codes
reported to GSS. Finally, similar to the science and health groups, broad fields were added to the engineering group.
At the field level, there were some notable changes that may impact trends. First, consistent with the 2020 CIP and TOD,
veterinary biomedical and clinical sciences moved from the health sciences to agricultural sciences (which was then
renamed agricultural and veterinary sciences). Human development is now reported under psychology, rather than social
sciences, to align with the 2020 TOD. Finally, 22 new 2020 CIP codes were added to multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary
studies; the addition of these CIP codes likely moved units that were already reported (i.e., many units named data science
are now reported with new CIP codes that map to the new data science and data analytics GSS code). For more
information about the 2020 GSS taxonomy change, see tables A-17, A-18a, and A-18b in the 2020 data tables (https://
ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22319).
In 2017, the GSS was redesigned to collect demographic and financial support data separately for master’s and doctoral
students so as to prioritize electronic data interchange (EDI) as the primary means of data submission and to utilize the
Department of Education’s CIP codes to report fields of study for graduate student enrollment data.2 More information
regarding the 2017 GSS redesign is available in the “Technical Notes” for the 2019 data tables (https://ncses.nsf.gov/
pubs/nsf21318#technical-notes). Due to these changes, the data for 2017 and beyond are not directly comparable to
previously collected GSS data. Trend comparisons can be made using the “2017old” estimates in the 2017 data tables,
which are available at https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/gradpostdoc/2017/.
GSS health fields are collected under the advisement of NIH. These GSS fields are about a third of all health fields in the
Department of Education’s CIP taxonomy. NIH information on trends seen within these selected health fields can be found
at https://report.nih.gov/nihdatabook/.
The full set of data tables from the 2021 survey is available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvygradpostdoc/. Data are
also available in NCSES’s interactive data tool (https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/ids/gss). For more information about the
survey, contact the GSS Survey Manager, Michael Yamaner.
A related InfoBrief based on the 2020 COVID Impact Module that was conducted as part of the 2020 GSS is available at
https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22313.

Notes
1 Between 2015 and 2020, the percentage of SED respondents stating that their immediate postgraduate plan was a
postdoc position declined in five out of six S&E broad fields. See 2020 SED Digest, figure 23 (https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/
nsf22300/report/postgraduation-trends, accessed 26 August 2022) and table 44 (https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22300/
data-tables, accessed 26 August 2022). See also Langin K. 2022. U.S. Labs Face Severe Postdoc Shortage. Science
376(6600):1369–70. https://www.science.org/content/article/professors-struggle-recruit-postdocs-calls-structuralchange-academia-intensify. Accessed 24 August 2022.
2 EDI is a method for transferring data between computer systems or networks using a standardized format. CIP is a
taxonomy used for reporting postsecondary fields to the Department of Education for the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System, a mandatory survey for institutions receiving federal financial aid. Most institutions in the GSS
already use CIP codes to report data on graduate students. The CIP taxonomy was developed by NCES, which updates the
taxonomy about once a decade; CIP was last revised in 2020. For more information, see https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/
cipcode/.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 23-311

Suggested Citation
Gordon J, Davies C, Yamaner MI; National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2023. 2021 Graduate
Enrollment in Science, Engineering, and Health Fields at All-Time High as Postdocs Continue to Decline. NSF 23-311.
Alexandria, VA: National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf23311.

Contact Us
Report Author(s)
Jonathan Gordon
RTI International, under contract to NCSES
Christopher Davies
RTI International, under contract to NCSES
Caren Arbeit
RTI International, under contract to NCSES
Michael I. Yamaner
Survey Manager
NCSES
Tel: (703) 292-7815
E-mail: myamaner@nsf.gov

NCSES
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics
Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences
National Science Foundation
2415 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite W14200
Alexandria, VA 22314
Tel: (703) 292-8780
FIRS: (800) 877-8339
TDD: (800) 281-8749
E-mail: ncsesweb@nsf.gov

 15

National Center for Science and
Engineering Statistics

InfoBrief

The Shifting Demographic Composition of Postdoctoral
Researchers at Federally Funded Research and
Development Centers in 2021
NSF 22-345 | October 2022
Jack M. Stoetzel, Caren A. Arbeit, and Michael I. Yamaner

In the United States, federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) advance strategic
research in science, engineering, and health. FFRDCs are a key part of the national efforts to attract and
retain a highly skilled workforce. The 25 FFRDCs with postdoctoral programs are thus contributing to
the training of the next generation of scientists and engineers. According to the Survey of Postdocs at
Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDC Postdoc Survey), the number of
postdoctoral researchers (postdocs) receiving training at these FFRDCs has grown by more than 1,000
postdocs (39.2%) since 2013, with 3,637 postdocs reported in 2021 (figure 1). Between 2019 and 2021,
the number of postdocs who are U.S. citizens and permanent residents increased by 350 (24.5%),
whereas the number of postdocs with a temporary visa declined by 48 (2.5%) (figure 1, table 1).
Data in this report are from the 2021 FFRDC Postdoc Survey, which provides information about the demographic
characteristics, sources of financial support, and fields of research of postdocs working at FFRDCs. The survey is
conducted in conjunction with the Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering (GSS),
which is sponsored by the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) within the National Science
Foundation (NSF) and by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This survey provides some of the only publicly available
data on the research training of early career doctorates at FFRDCs. The postdocs employed by FFRDCs represent an
important part of the science and engineering workforce in the United States, and the data collected in the FFRDC Postdoc
Survey inform our understanding of the country’s next generation of scientists and engineers.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 22-345

 2

Figure 1
Postdoctoral researchers at federally funded research and development centers, by sex and citizenship status: 2013–21

0

Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Postdocs at Federally Funded Research and Development Centers.

Table 1
Sex, citizenship, ethnicity, and race of postdoctoral researchers at federally funded research and development centers: 2019 and
2021
(Number and percent)

2019
Citizenship, ethnicity, and race
All postdocs
Women
Men
U.S. citizens and permanent residentsa
Hispanic or Latino
Not Hispanic or Latino
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian
Black or African American
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
White
More than one race
Unknown ethnicity or race
Women
Men

Number

2021

Percent

Number

Change 2019–21

Percent

Number

Percentage point

Percent

3,335
859
2,476

100.0
25.8
74.2

3,637
980
2,657

100.0
26.9
73.1

302
121
181

-1.2
-1.2

9.1
14.1
7.3

1,429
76
1,311
0
193
38
2
1,043
35
42
385
1,044

42.8
2.3
39.3
0.0
5.8
1.1
0.1
31.3
1.0
1.3
11.5
31.3

1,779
120
1,615
2
251
38
1
1,259
64
44
534
1,245

48.9
3.3
44.4
0.1
6.9
1.0
0.0
34.6
1.8
1.2
14.7
34.2

350
44
304
2
58
0
-1
216
29
2
149
201

6.1
1.0
5.1
0.1
1.1
-0.1
0.0
3.3
0.7
0.0
3.1
2.9

24.5
57.9
23.2
na
30.1
0.0
-50.0
20.7
82.9
4.8
38.7
19.3

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 22-345

 3

Table 1
Sex, citizenship, ethnicity, and race of postdoctoral researchers at federally funded research and development centers: 2019 and
2021
(Number and percent)

2019
Citizenship, ethnicity, and race

Number

Temporary visa holders
Women
Men

1,906
474
1,432

2021

Percent
57.2
14.2
42.9

Number
1,858
446
1,412

Change 2019–21

Percent
51.1
12.3
38.8

Number

Percentage point

-48
-28
-20

Percent

-6.1
-2.0
-4.1

-2.5
-5.9
-1.4

na = not applicable.
a Race and ethnicity data are available only for U.S. citizens and permanent residents.

Note(s):
Detail may not sum because of rounding.
Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Postdocs at Federally Funded Research and Development Centers.

Demographic Shifts among Postdocs
The FFRDC Postdoc Survey addresses many questions, including who receives postdoctoral training at FFRDCs. This
section highlights the demographic characteristics of postdocs receiving training at FFRDCs, focusing on the changes
between 2019 and 2021. Note that this was the first FFRDC Postdoc Survey conducted since the COVID-19 pandemic
began in spring 2020. The pandemic brought about travel restrictions and limitations that, particularly in 2020, impacted
the ability of foreign nationals to secure temporary visas to study or train in the United States, particularly for those who
were not already studying or working in the country when restrictions when into effect.1 The 2021 data suggest that
COVID-19 did not slow the growth of postdocs at FFRDCs but did impact the opportunities available to temporary visa
holders.
The overall number of postdocs at FFRDCs grew by 302 (9.1%) between 2019 and 2021 (figure 1, table 1), with the
number of women growing by 121 (14.1%) to 980. Among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, there were an additional
149 female postdocs at FFRDCs between 2019 and 2021, a 38.7% increase and an increase of 3.1 percentage points. This
is the largest increase since the number of female postdocs who are U.S. citizens or permanent residents increased by 61
between 2013 and 2015.
Among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, the number of postdocs who are Hispanic or Latino, Asian, White, or more
than one race all increased by over 20% between 2019 and 2021. These changes, along with the increase in the number of
women, indicate a slowly diversifying postdoc population at FFRDCs.
About half of all postdocs at FFRDCs were temporary visa holders in both 2019 (57.2%) and 2021 (51.1%), even after a
2.5% decline in the number of postdocs who were temporary visa holders. The total decline was 48 postdocs, 28 women
(5.9% decrease) and 20 men (1.4% decrease). Even with the recent decline in the number of postdocs with a temporary
visa, there were 395 more temporary visa holder postdocs in 2021 than in 2013 (figure 1).

Fields of Research at FFRDCs in 2021
Overall, 70.7% of postdocs in FFRDCs engage in science research, 25.9% conduct research in engineering, and 3.4%
perform research in other or unknown fields (table 2). Almost half (47.8%) of postdocs at FFRDCs work in research fields
in the physical sciences, with 23.9% of all postdocs conducting research in physics and astronomy, 12.6% in chemistry,
and 11.3% in materials science and chemistry. Outside of the physical sciences, the next largest fields were biological and
biomedical sciences (7.1%) and geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences (6.7%) (table 2).

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 22-345

 4

Table 2
Field of research of postdoctoral researchers at federally funded research and development centers, by citizenship and FFRDC
sponsor: 2021
(Number and percent)

Citizenship status
U.S. citizens and
permanent
residents

Total
Field of research
All postdoctoral researchers
Science and engineering
Science
Agricultural and veterinary sciences
Biological and biomedical sciences
Chemistry
Computer and information sciences
Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and
ocean sciences
Materials science and chemistry
Mathematics and statistics
Natural resources and conservation
Physics and astronomy
Psychology
Social sciences
Other sciences
Engineering
Aerospace, aeronautical and astronautical
engineering
Biological, biomedical, and biosystems
engineering
Chemical, petroleum, and related engineering
fields
Civil, environmental, transportation, and
related engineering fields
Electrical, electronics, communications, and
computer engineering
Engineering science, mechanics, and physics
Industrial, manufacturing, systems
engineering, and operations research
Mechanical engineering
Metallurgical, mining, materials, and related
engineering fields
Nuclear engineering
Other engineering fields
Health
Multidisciplinary
Non-science or engineering
Field of research not known/ reported

Federal sponsor

Temporary visa
holders

Department of
Energy

All other federal
sponsors

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
3,637
3,513
2,571
7
258
458
173

100.0
96.6
70.7
0.2
7.1
12.6
4.8

1,779
1,700
1,238
4
155
265
62

100.0
95.6
69.6
0.2
8.7
14.9
3.5

1,858
1,813
1,333
3
103
193
111

100.0
97.6
71.7
0.2
5.5
10.4
6.0

3,357
3,252
2,359
7
248
442
164

100.0
96.9
70.3
0.2
7.4
13.2
4.9

280
261
212
0
10
16
9

100.0
93.2
75.7
0.0
3.6
5.7
3.2

242
412
75
16
870
2
5
53
942

6.7
11.3
2.1
0.4
23.9
0.1
0.1
1.5
25.9

108
171
32
10
399
2
3
27
462

6.1
9.6
1.8
0.6
22.4
0.1
0.2
1.5
26.0

134
241
43
6
471
0
2
26
480

7.2
13.0
2.3
0.3
25.3
0.0
0.1
1.4
25.8

151
410
67
16
795
1
5
53
893

4.5
12.2
2.0
0.5
23.7
0.0
0.1
1.6
26.6

91
2
8
0
75
1
0
0
49

32.5
0.7
2.9
0.0
26.8
0.4
0.0
0.0
17.5

21

0.6

7

0.4

14

0.8

19

0.6

2

0.7

46

1.3

27

1.5

19

1.0

46

1.4

0

0.0

169

4.6

75

4.2

94

5.1

169

5.0

0

0.0

83

2.3

41

2.3

42

2.3

76

2.3

7

2.5

147
124

4.0
3.4

64
86

3.6
4.8

83
38

4.5
2.0

124
124

3.7
3.7

23
0

8.2
0.0

15
173

0.4
4.8

3
59

0.2
3.3

12
114

0.6
6.1

15
159

0.4
4.7

0
14

0.0
5.0

41
87
36
3
92
10
19

1.1
2.4
1.0
0.1
2.5
0.3
0.5

26
53
21
3
58
6
12

1.5
3.0
1.2
0.2
3.3
0.3
0.7

15
34
15
0
34
4
7

0.8
1.8
0.8
0.0
1.8
0.2
0.4

38
87
36
3
76
9
17

1.1
2.6
1.1
0.1
2.3
0.3
0.5

3
0
0
0
16
1
2

1.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.7
0.4
0.7

FFRDC = federally funded research and development center.
Source(s):
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Postdocs at Federally Funded Research and Development Centers, 2021.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 22-345

 5

Although the general distribution of postdocs is similar across fields for temporary visa holders and U.S. citizens and
permanent residents, there are some differences. Fields of research that have a higher percentage of temporary visa
holders than U.S. citizens and permanent residents are in the fields of materials science and chemistry (13.0% versus
9.6%), physics and astronomy (25.3% versus 22.4%), and mechanical engineering (6.1% versus 3.3%). Conversely, the
following research fields have a higher percentage of postdocs at FFRDCs who are U.S. citizens and permanent residents
than who are temporary visa holders: chemistry (14.9% versus 10.4%), biological and medical sciences (8.7% versus
5.5%), and engineering science, mechanics, and physics (4.8% versus 2.0%).
FFRDCs sponsored by the Department of Energy (DOE) train the majority of postdocs (3,357, or 92.3%). At both DOE and
non-DOE FFRDCs, about a quarter (23.7% and 26.8%, respectively) are engaged in physics and astronomy research. A
quarter (25.4%) of the postdocs at DOE FFRDCs are engaged in either chemistry (13.2%) or materials science and
chemistry (12.2%) research, compared with 6.4% of postdocs engaged in such research in both fields at non-DOE FFRDCs.
Similarly, over a quarter (26.6%) of postdocs at DOE FFRDCs are engaged in engineering research, compared with 17.5%
of postdocs at non-DOE FFRDCs (table 2).
At FFRDCs not sponsored by DOE, the field of research with the largest percentage of postdocs is geosciences,
atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences, with about a third (32.5%) of postdocs engaging in research in these fields,
compared with 4.5% of postdocs at DOE FFRDCs. Proportionally more postdocs at non-DOE FFRDCs than at DOE FFRDCs
research electrical, electronics, communications, and computer engineering (8.2% versus 3.7%) or multidisciplinary fields
(5.7% versus 2.3%). Physics and astronomy training occurs in similar proportions across DOE and non-DOE FFRDCs;
however, there is less overlap in the proportion of postdocs in other fields (table 2).

Data Sources, Limitations, and Availability
The 2021 Survey of Postdocs at FFRDCs collected data from FFRDCs listed in the March 2021 Master Government List of
FFRDCs that is maintained by NCSES within NSF.2 Of the 43 FFRDCs listed, 25 FFRDCs reported employing postdocs to
the 2021 FFRDC Postdoc Survey. Representatives from each FFRDC report their data on the number of postdocs
employed at the institution; data reported to the survey are categorized by citizenship, sex, race, and ethnicity; source of
financial support; and fields of research. The reference date for this survey cycle was 1 October 2021. The survey is
conducted in conjunction with the GSS, which is sponsored by NCSES within NSF as well as by NIH.
Consistent with the NSF and NIH definitions, the FFRDC Postdoc Survey defines a postdoc as an appointee who holds a
PhD or equivalent doctoral degree; whose doctorate was awarded recently, generally within the past 5 years; whose
appointment is term-limited, generally no more than 5–7 years;3 who works under the supervision of a senior researcher;
and whose appointment is primarily for the purpose of training in research or scholarship.
Exercise caution when using trend data because changes in how FFRDCs define their postdocs, maintain their
administrative data, and report unknown responses can affect data comparability trends. In 2021, the FFRDC Postdoc
Survey updated the fields and field titles used for reporting. This change keeps the field reporting similar to the GSS, which
added fields and modified field labels in the 2020 cycle. Most notably for users, the FFRDC Postdoc Survey collects data
on the sciences aligned with the GSS broad fields and detailed fields for physical sciences. Materials science and
chemistry was added in 2021 due to the large number of postdocs in that field. Engineering field labels were adjusted to
align with the GSS. The FFRDC Postdoc Survey continues to include a small number of postdocs at FFRDCs who do not
engage primarily in science, engineering, and health research.
Detailed data from this survey are available at https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srvyffrdcpd/. For more information on the
FFRDC Postdoc Survey, please contact the Survey Manager.

Notes
1 In 2020, the GSS saw a decline in postdocs with temporary visas. See Davies C, Arbeit CA, Yamaner MI; National Center
for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2022. Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on Science, Engineering, and
Health Graduate Enrollment: U.S. Part-Time Enrollment Increases as Full-Time Temporary Visa Holder Enrollment Declines.
NSF 22-317. Alexandria, VA: National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22317/.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics | NSF 22-345

 6

2 For the Master Government List of FFRDCs used for this survey, please see https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/
archive/ffrdc-2021.xlsx.
3 In the GSS COVID Impact Module, 16% of coordinators (and over 24% at very high research activity public institutions)
reported changes to postdoctoral duration due to the pandemic. Thus, while the general rule is 5–7 years for a postdoc,
due to the COVID-19 pandemic, some FFRDCs could have extended postdoc training periods. See Arbeit CA, Yamaner MI;
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2021. Universities Report Growth in U.S. Citizen and
Permanent Resident Enrollment along with Declines in Enrollment of Temporary Visa Holders at Master’s and Doctoral
Levels Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. NSF 22-313. Alexandria, VA: National Science Foundation. Available at https://
ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22313/.

Suggested Citation
Stoetzel JM, Arbeit CA, Yamaner MI; National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2022. The Shifting
Demographic Composition of Postdoctoral Researchers at Federally Funded Research and Development Centers: 2021. NSF
22-345. Alexandria, VA: National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22345.

Contact Us
Report Authors
Jack M. Stoetzel
RTI International, under contract to NCSES
Caren A. Arbeit
RTI International, under contract to NCSES
Michael I. Yamaner
Survey Manager
Tel: (703) 292-7815
E-mail: myamaner@nsf.gov

NCSES
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics
Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences
National Science Foundation
2415 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite W14200
Alexandria, VA 22314
Tel: (703) 292-8780
FIRS: (800) 877-8339
TDD: (800) 281-8749
E-mail: ncsesweb@nsf.gov