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WILDLIFE
FIRE
U.S. Forest
Resource Facts and
Historical Trends
PEOPLE
http://fia.fs.fed.us
INVASIVE SPECIES
SUSTAINABILITY
TREES
Editors
Sonja N. Oswalt
Resource Analyst
Forest Inventory and Analysis
Forest Service
Southern Research Station
Knoxville, TN
Mike Thompson
Research Forester
Forest Inventory and Analysis
Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
Ogden, UT
W. Brad Smith
Associate National Program Manager
Forest Inventory and Analysis
Forest Service
National Office
Washington, DC
Contributors
The editors gratefully acknowledge the following people for their
review and contributions to this brochure:
Susan Alexander
Karen Bennett
Thomas Brandeis
Tom Brown
Brett Butler
Sally Campbell
Sally Collins
Ken Cordell
Dave Darr
Joseph Donnegan
Curt Flather
Linda Heath
James Howard
Linda Joyce
Linda Langner
Jim Menakis
Patrick Miles
Dave Nowak
Charles (Hobie) Perry
Kurt Riitters
Ken Skog
James Smith
Jim Strittholt
Borys Tkacz
Chris Toney
Christopher Woodall
Contents
Page
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Forest Inventory Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Other Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The United States in a Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Land and Forest Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Reserved Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Timber Land and Other Forest Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Urban Influence on Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Forest Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fragmentation of Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Forest Composition and Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Forest Carbon and Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Forest Health and Invasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Wildland Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Timber Products and Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Nontimber Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Forest Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Forest Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Caribbean and Pacific Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Web Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1
Introduction
The 2010 Resources Planning Act (RPA) Assessment is being
developed in response to the mandate in the Forest and
Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, P .L .
93-378, 88 Stat . 475, as amended . This update consists of a
summary report and supporting documents, which address
outdoor recreation, wilderness, timber, fish and wildlife, water,
and range (available at http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa) .
The National Report on Sustainable Forests–2010 provides
a comprehensive account of available data on the current
condition of the Nation’s forest resources . The report is based on
64 indicators for the conservation and sustainable management
of forests . The indicators were endorsed by the United States and
11 other countries that house 90 percent of the world’s temperate
and boreal forests and 60 percent of all forests . Information on
this report may be found on the Web at http://www .fs .fed .us/
research/sustain/ .
This brochure reports selected highlights of the findings of both
reports . Much of the data for this brochure is reported regionally
as North, South, and West .
Major reporting regions for the United States for this brochure
North
West
South
2
Forest Inventory Data
The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the Forest
Service, U .S . Department of Agriculture, inventories various
attributes of forest resources and reports them in the RPA
Assessment and various supporting documents . FIA has been
conducting field inventories for nearly 80 years using state-of-the
art technology to provide estimates of the status, condition, and
trends of the Nation’s forests . These estimates are critical to the
development and implementation of policies and practices that
support sustainable forestry in the United States . Nine national
reports based on FIA data have been produced since 1953 .
Extensive field measurement from FIA inventories includes
over 4 .5 million remote sensing pixels interpreted for land
use; over 125,000 permanent field plots systematically located
across all forest lands in the United States; over 100 characteristics measured at each plot location; and over 3 million trees
measured to evaluate volume, condition, and vigor .
Other Data
Data for forest ownership and products are from periodic FIA
forest ownership and forest products studies . Data for wildlife,
recreation, health, timber trade, and nonwood products are
derived from Forest Service scientists’ contributions to the
National Report on Sustainable Forests–2010 . Web sources for
this and other related data are found at the end of this brochure .
This brochure is available in six languages: English, Spanish,
French, Russian, Chinese, and Portuguese . Visit the FIA Web site
at http://fia .fs .fed .us for more information .
The United States in a Global Context
Global forestry issues are of considerable significance to the
United States, which has 5 percent of the world population and
consumes 27 percent of the world’s industrial wood products .
Although domestic timber inventory is only 8 percent of the
world total, 76 percent of U .S . consumption of industrial
wood comes from domestic supplies . Additional demands for
U .S . forests are also of interest, including protected areas for
biodiversity and relative contributions of U .S . forests to carbon
pools, among others .
3
United States as a percent of world totals for selected measures
Population 5%
Land area 7%
Forest land 8%
Woody biomass 11%
Timber inventory 8%
Timber used for 27%
industrial products
0%
10%
20%
30%
Land and Forest Area
It is estimated that in 1630 the area of forest land in the United
States was 1,037 million acres or about 46 percent of the total
land area . Since 1630, about 286 million acres of forest land
have been converted to other uses—mainly agricultural . Nearly
two-thirds of the net conversion to other uses occurred in the
last half of the 19th century, when an average of 13 square miles
of forest was cleared every day for 50 years . By 1910, the area of
forest land had declined to an estimated 754 million acres, or 34
percent of the total land area . In 2007, forest land comprised 751
million acres, or 33 percent of the total land area of the United
States . Forest area has been relatively stable since 1910 .
Forest area trends in the United States, 1850–2007
400
350
West
Million acres
300
250
South
200
North
150
100
50
0
1850
1900
1953
2007
Stable forest area, however, does not mean that there has been
no change in the character of the forest . In addition to reversions
to and from agriculture and more intensive land uses like
urban development, there have been changes inside the forest
as forests respond to human manipulation, aging, and other
natural processes . The effects of these changes are reflected in the
information presented in this brochure .
4
Land area and forest area trends in the United States
Region
Category
Year
U.S.
North
South
West
million acres
Land
2,263
413
525
1,325
2007
751
172
215
365
1997
743
170
214
358
1987
730
166
211
354
1977
736
164
217
355
1963
755
166
228
361
750
161
226
363
Forest
1953
746
159
221
366
1910
754
134
247
372
1850
935
227
329
379
1630
1,037
298
354
385
2007
514
164
204
146
1997
504
159
201
143
1987
485
155
195
135
1977
491
153
198
139
1963
515
156
209
150
1953
509
154
205
150
2007
75
6
3
65
1997
52
8
4
40
1987
35
7
3
25
1977
29
6
2
21
1963
25
4
1
19
1953
24
4
1
19
1938
1
Timber land
Reserved forest
2
In addition to land area of the United States at that time, estimates for 1938 include forest area in
the regions that would become the States of Alaska and Hawaii. Estimates for 1630 represent the
forest area in North America for regions that would become the 50 States within the current United
States. Source: for 1938: U.S. Congress (1941). Source for 1630: R.S. Kellogg (1909).
1
Does not include some protected areas. National forest roadless areas are International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Class VI but not identified as “reserved” in FIA statistics and total
approximately 32 million acres. Currently these lands are reported in timber land and other forest
land in FIA reports. New inventories will provide more accurate data to place these lands in their
proper IUCN classification.
2
5
Region
Category
Year
U.S.
North
South
West
million acres
Other forest
2007
162
2
7
153
1997
187
3
9
175
1987
211
4
13
194
1977
215
5
17
194
1963
216
5
18
192
1953
217
3
20
194
Reserved Forest
Reserved forest land has tripled since 1953 and now stands at 10
percent of all forest land in the United States . This reserved forest
area includes State and Federal parks and wilderness areas but
does not include conservation easements, areas protected by nongovernmental organizations, many wildlife management areas,
and most urban and community parks and reserves . Significant
additions to Federal forest reserves occurred after the passage
of the Wilderness Act in 1964 . See the description of protected
forest by International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) categories on page 50 for more information .
Trends in reserved forest land in the United States by region, 1953–2007
80
70
West
South
North
Million acres
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
66
1953
1963
1977
Year
1987
1997
2007
Timber Land and Other Forest Land
Timber land is fairly evenly distributed among the three
major regions of the United States . Other forest land—
such as slow-growing spruce forests in interior Alaska and
pinyon-juniper in the interior West—dominates many western
landscapes and comprises more than one-fourth of all U .S . forest
land . Reserved forest is most common in the West, comprising
18 percent of all forests in that region . In contrast, only 3 percent
of eastern forests are set aside as parks and wilderness areas .
Forest land by land class and region in the United States, 2007
West
South
Timber land
Reserved forest
Other forest
North
0
80
160
240
Million acres
320
400
Urban Influence on Forests
Urban land in the conterminous United States increased from
2 .5 percent of total land area in 1990 to 3 .1 percent in 2000 .
Urbanization affects the forest resource and its management in
many ways . Not only does urban development directly eliminate
some trees and forests, it also increases population density,
human activities, and urban infrastructure, which can affect
forests and their management . As urban landscapes increase
across the Nation, rural forest landscapes are often converted
to developed lands . With greater than 80 percent of the U .S .
population living in urban areas, ecosystem services provided by
urban trees and forests are significant and valued in the billions
of dollars, annually .
Nationally, urban areas (cities, towns, or villages with at
least 2,500 people) have an average tree cover of 27 percent .
Estimated at nearly 4 billion, urban trees provide many valuable
benefits based on their current composition and function .
Beside the basic value of the trees—estimated at $2 .4 trillion
(Nowak et al . 2002)—two additional benefits of urban trees
include air pollution removal and carbon sequestration . Annual
pollution removal (O3, PM10, NO2, SO2 and CO) by urban trees
7
is estimated at 783,000 tons ($3 .8 billion value according to
Nowak et al . 2006), and storage is estimated at 776 million tons
of carbon ($14 .3 billion value) with a gross carbon sequestration
rate of 25 .1 million tC/yr ($460 million/yr) .
One coarse measure of expanding urban influence on forests
is a simple classification of forest area by county based on the
population demographics . The following graphic demonstrates
that, in the last 10 years, the area of forest in rural counties
(no population centers over 2,500 persons) has declined by 52
million acres or 18 percent . That is, the number of counties with
small populations and their associated forest area have declined .
Forest land area in the United States by population influence,
1997 and 2007
250
1997
2007
Million acres
200
150
100
50
0
EAST
WEST
Forest land in counties
with urban centers
over 20,000 persons
EAST
WEST
EAST
WEST
Forest land in counties
Forest land in counties
with no urban center
with urban centers of
2,500 to 20,000 persons greater than 2,500 persons
Forest Ownership
Over half of the forest land in the United States is privately
owned and, of this, over half is owned by families and
individuals . The other 44 percent of the forest land is controlled
by Federal, State, and local governments .
Photo by Larry Korhnak, http://www.interfacesouth.usda.gov
88
Distribution of forest land ownership in the United States, 2006
Other private
3%
Federal
33%
Family
36%
Corporate
18%
State
Local 9%
1%
* Includes nongovernmental conservation organizations, unincorporated partnerships, and Native
American lands.
Ownership Patterns
Ownership patterns vary immensely across the country . In the
West, 70 percent of the land is publicly owned . In the East, 81
percent of the land is privately owned .
Pattern of forest ownership in the United States, 2006
*Alaska (not pictured) has 126 million acres of forest, 72 percent of which are publicly owned, and
34 percent of Hawaii’s (not pictured) 1.7 million acres of forest are publicly owned.
9
Public Forests
Public forests are predominantly owned by the Federal
Government in the West and State and county governments in
the East . Seventy-six percent of all public forest acres are in the
West . Most protected forests are in public ownership, while most
production forests are in private ownership .
Forest Service national forests dominate the Federal lands, but
the Bureau of Land Management, the National Parks Service,
and the U .S . Department of Defense also have substantial
forest holdings . State lands include lands designated as forests,
parks, wildlife refuges, and for other purposes . The local
category consists of lands controlled by municipal and county
governments .
Forest land by owner class in the United States, 2007
Owner class/
land class
Region
U.S.
North
South
West
Million acres
All owners
751
172
215
365
Timber land
514
164
204
146
Reserved forest
75
6
3
65
Other forest
162
2
7
153
National Forest
147
11
13
123
Timber land
99
10
12
76
Reserved forest
26
1
1
25
Other forest
22
0
0
22
Other public
181
33
16
133
Timber land
59
27
13
19
Reserved forest
48
5
3
40
Other forest
74
1
0
74
138
28
57
52
Private corporate
Timber land
106
28
57
21
Reserved forest
—
—
—
—
Other forest
32
0
0
31
Private
noncorporate
285
100
129
57
Timber land
250
99
122
30
Reserved forest
—
—
—
—
Other forest
34
1
7
26
10
Harvests from public forests currently account for 8 percent
of the Nation’s total . Public harvesting has decreased since the
1980s . An increase in harvesting from private forests, particularly
in the Southern United States, has largely offset this decrease at
the national level .
Private Forests
There are an estimated 11 .3 million private forest owners in the
United States . They range from industrial owners with millions
of acres to families and individuals with just an acre of trees
behind their homes .
Timber removal trends on private forest land, 1952–2006
10,000
9,000
8,000
Million cubic feet
7,000
1952
1976
2006
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
North
South
West
Although more than 60 percent of private forest owners own
between 1 and 9 acres of forest land, most of the private forest
land is in holdings of at least 200 acres . More than 20 percent
of private forest land is in holdings of at least 10,000 acres;
these are owned primarily by corporations and are managed for
commercial purposes .
11
11
Percent of forest area and private owners by holding size class, 2006
Percentage of Area/Owners
70
60
Area
Owners
50
40
30
20
10
0
+
1–9 10–19 20–49 50–99 0–199 0–499 0–999 –4,999 –9,999 10,000
10
50 ,000 ,000
20
1
5
Size of forest holdings (acres)
Private Corporate Forests
Corporate owners collectively control one-third of the private
forest land in the United States . The major change in corporate
forest ownership in the past decade or so has been the divestiture
of forest land by vertically integrated forest products companies
and the growth of timber investment management organizations
and real estate investment trusts . This shift has been caused by
changes in the tax code and changes in corporate strategies .
The ultimate ramifications of these structural changes are still
unknown .
Family Forests
The other two-thirds of the private forest land are owned by
noncorporate owners, the vast majority of whom are families
and individuals . They own their land for many purposes, most of
which center around the amenity values their forests provide .
Primary reasons why families and individuals own forest land, 2006
Aesthetics
Family legacy
Privacy
Nature protection
Part of home
Land investment
Hunting
Part of farm
Other recreation
Timber production
0
12
10
20
30
40
50
Percent of family forest owners
60
70
Fifty-eight percent of family forest land is owned by people who
have commercially harvested trees from their land . However,
only 17 percent of that forest land is owned by people who also
have a written management plan and only 37 percent is owned
by people who have received management advice .
Twenty percent of the family forest owners are 75 years or older .
Additionally, 23 percent of the land is owned by people who plan
to sell or pass it on in the next 5 years . Family legacy is, therefore,
an important objective to many of these owners .
Top Concerns of Family Forest Owners
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
5 .
Keeping land intact for heirs
Insects or plant diseases
Fire
Trespassing or poaching
High property taxes
Parcellation
Parcellation, the process of dividing a land holding into two
or more smaller holdings, is one possible consequence of this
intergenerational transfer of land . Between 1993 and 2006,
the average size of private forest holdings decreased by 11
percent; between 1978 and 2006, it decreased by 20 percent .
As the parcels become smaller, they become more difficult to
economically manage, and issues—such as wildfire fighting—can
become increasingly costly and difficult .
Fragmentation of Forests
The Forest Service used high-resolution satellite imagery to
determine how much forest land experiences different types and
degrees of fragmentation . Fragmentation is caused by human
activities and natural processes, and may lead to the isolation
and loss of species and gene pools, degraded habitat quality, and
a reduction in the forest’s ability to sustain the natural processes
necessary to maintain ecosystem health . The fragmentation of
forest area into smaller pieces changes ecological processes and
alters biological diversity .
Analysis of fragmentation is scale dependent and, consequently,
differs depending on whether the forest is separated into small
or large pieces (landscapes) for analysis . Simply stated, places
that are forested tend to be clustered in proximity to other places
that are forested, but blocks of forest land are usually fragmented
by inclusions of nonforest land . This pattern is repeated across
a wide range of spatial scales . For landscapes up to 160 acres in
size, at least 76 percent of all forest land is in landscapes that are
at least 60 percent forested . For larger landscapes up to 119,000
13
acres in size, at least 57 percent of forest land is in forestdominated landscapes . Forest landscapes fall into three main
categories: (1) core, (2) interior and (3) edge .
Core forests are landscapes that are completely forested . The
larger the landscape being examined, the less likely it is that it
will be core forest . For 10-acre landscapes, 46 percent of all forest
land is classified as core forest . Less than 1 percent of forest land
is classified as core forest in landscapes that are 1,500 acres or
larger .
Interior forests are landscapes that are more than 90 percent
forested . Larger landscapes are less likely to have interior forest .
When examining landscapes that are 10 acres in size, 60 percent
of all forest land is interior forest . For landscapes larger than
250 acres, however, less than one-third of forest land is classified
as interior forest . Forest area in landscapes dominated by forest
(more than 60 percent forest) is greater than either core or
interior forest, and dominant forest area also decreases with
increasing landscape size .
Edge forests have a different microclimate and often support a
different species mixture than core or interior forests . Overall,
54 percent of forest land is within 555 feet of forest land edge,
74 percent is within 990 feet of forest land edge, and less than 1
percent is at least 5,700 feet (1 .1 mile) from forest land edge .
The following figure shows the percent of all forest in a county
that is interior forest (>90 percent forested) when analyzed at
an approximately 40-acre scale . Larger values indicate that a
larger share of the existing county forest is relatively intact, in
comparison to forests in other counties .
Pattern of forest fragmentation by county in the United States
Percent of all forest
that is interior by county
0 to 7.7
7.7 to 27.0
27.0 to 39.2
39.2 to 54.1
54.1 to 87.3
14
In general, western forests tend to be less fragmented than
eastern forests (North and South regions) . The available data
permit analysis of overall forest land fragmentation but do not
incorporate the influence of small roads nor differences in land
ownership (“parcellation”) .
Forest Composition and Age
The forests of the United States are very diverse in composition
and distribution . Oak-hickory and maple-beech-birch forests
dominate the Northeast; expansive pine forests blanket the
Southeast; and majestic Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine forests
cloak the western landscape . In the last 30 years, as the Nation’s
forests age, eastern early seral types like aspen and spruce-fir have
given way to mid and late seral types like oak-hickory and maplebeech-birch . In the West, decades of fire suppression are reducing
areas of ponderosa and lodgepole pine .
Forest type area trends in the Eastern United States, 1977 and 2007
Aspen-birch
1977
2007
Maple-beech-birch
Elm-ash-cottonwood
Oak-gum-cypress
Oak-pine
Oak-hickory, South
Oak-hickory, North
Loblolly-shortleaf pine
Longleaf-slash pine
Northern conifers
0
25
50
Million acres
100
75
Forest type area trends in the Western United States, 1977 and 2007
Pinyon-juniper
1977
2007
Other softwoods
Lodgepole pine
Hemlock-Sitka spruce
Fir-spruce
Ponderosa pine
Douglas fir
0
25
50
Million acres
75
100
15
Following intensive logging and regeneration in the late 19th
century and again in the mid 20th century, 51 percent of the
Nation’s timber land is less than 50 years old . Five percent is
more than 175 years old .
Forest area in the conterminous United States by region and stand-age
class, 2007
70
60
South
Million acres
50
40
30
20
West
North
10
0
0 to
19
20 to
39
40 to 60 to 80 to 100 to 150 to 200 and
59
99
79
149
199
older
Stand-age class (years)
Forest Origin
Forests in the United States are predominantly natural stands of
native species . Planted forest land is most common in the East
and heavily comprised of planted stands of native pine in the
South . In the West, planting is generally used to augment natural
regeneration .
Primary origin of forest stands in the United States, 2007
Natural
Planted
All US
West
South
North
0%
16
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Tree Planting
Forest planting in the United States currently averages about 1 .8
million acres per year . Pine is the most commonly planted species
in the South . Spikes in tree planting occurred in the South in
the 1950s as a result of the Soil Bank Program and in the 1980s
as a result of the Conservation Reserve Program, which resulted
in the planting of nearly 3 million acres of nonforest land .
Western planting has subsided in recent years, mirroring reduced
harvesting in that region .
Forest planting in the United States by region, 1952–2006
3.0
2.5
South
Million acres
2.0
1.5
1.0
West
0.5
North
0.0
1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006
Year
Growing Stock Volume
Growing stock inventory, growth, removals, and mortality trends on timber land by region and species group in the United States, 1952–2007
Region
Category
Year
Total
North
South
West
Million cubic feet
Inventory
Growth
2007
932,082
248,000
288,522
395,560
1997
835,663
214,246
256,354
365,063
1987
781,662
190,035
244,631
346,968
1977
733,042
163,021
223,364
346,685
1963
665,591
128,276
174,065
363,250
1953
615,895
103,753
148,466
363,675
2006
26,731
6,570
13,281
6,909
1996
23,871
5,409
11,412
7,023
1986
23,616
5,663
10,760
7,193
1976
21,493
5,380
10,053
6,032
1962
16,707
4,417
8,099
4,191
1952
20,048
4,955
10,902
4,191
(cont. on next page)
17
(continued)
Region
Category
Year
Total
North
South
West
Million cubic feet
Removals
Mortality
2006
15,546
2,832
9,684
3,030
1996
16,027
2,775
10,194
3,058
1986
16,452
2,718
8,693
5,040
1976
14,215
2,662
6,570
5,012
1962
11,950
2,067
5,522
4,361
1952
11,440
2,209
5,493
3,766
2006
7,815
2,039
2,860
2,945
1996
6,315
1,614
2,237
2,464
1986
4,644
1,246
1,671
1,727
1976
4,106
1,161
1,274
1,671
1962
4,333
934
1,161
2,237
1952
3,908
680
963
2,237
2007
529,188
55,869
118,478
354,869
1997
483,824
49,385
104,858
329,610
Softwoods
Inventory
Growth
Removals
18
1987
467,570
47,629
105,622
314,347
1977
466,947
43,863
101,205
321,908
1963
449,759
33,669
75,097
341,022
1953
431,806
27,043
60,457
344,278
2006
15,235
1,501
7,646
6,116
1996
13,762
1,189
6,400
6,201
1986
13,394
1,218
5,947
6,230
1976
12,035
1,246
5,578
5,210
1962
9,599
1,218
4,701
4,616
1952
11,242
1,444
6,116
3,653
2006
9,854
680
6,315
2,860
1996
10,053
680
6,485
2,917
1986
11,355
736
5,748
4,899
1976
10,053
708
4,474
4,871
1962
7,617
538
2,803
4,276
1952
7,532
708
3,087
3,766
(continued)
Region
Category
Year
Total
North
South
West
Million cubic feet
Softwoods
Mortality
2006
4,502
538
1,359
2,605
1996
3,625
453
1,048
2,124
1986
2,775
368
850
1,586
1976
2,464
311
623
1,501
1962
2,775
283
396
2,067
1952
2,662
227
340
2,124
Hardwoods
Inventory
Growth
Removals
Mortality
2007
402,894
192,131
170,044
40,692
1997
351,839
164,862
151,524
35,453
1987
314,092
142,406
139,036
32,621
1977
266,095
119,158
122,160
24,777
1963
215,832
94,635
98,996
22,229
1953
184,089
76,682
88,009
19,397
2006
11,497
5,097
5,635
765
1996
10,081
4,219
5,012
850
1986
10,194
4,446
4,814
963
1976
9,458
4,163
4,502
821
1962
7,108
3,200
3,398
481
1952
8,807
3,511
4,757
538
2006
5,663
2,152
3,370
142
1996
5,947
2,095
3,710
142
1986
5,097
1,982
2,945
142
1976
4,191
1,954
2,095
142
1962
4,333
1,529
2,718
85
1952
3,908
1,472
2,407
—
2006
3,313
1,501
1,501
340
1996
2,690
1,161
1,189
311
1986
1,869
878
821
170
1976
1,614
821
651
170
1962
1,557
651
765
142
1952
1,246
481
651
142
Average growing stock volume per acre continues to rise across
the United States, with the largest gains in the North and South
where volumes per acre are nearly double what they were in
1953 .
19
Average growing stock volume on timber land in the United States by
region, 1953, 1977, and 2007
3,000
1953
1977
2007
Cubic feet per acre
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
North
South
West
U.S.
Net Growth, Removals, and Mortality Rates for Growing Stock
Over the past 50 years, net growth has consistently exceeded
removals in the United States . Removals remain at about 2
percent of inventory, while net growth (growth minus mortality)
is near 3 percent . Currently, the volume of annual net growth is
32 percent higher than the volume of annual removals . Mortality
rates have remained well below 1 percent of inventory for at least
50 years .
Net annual growing stock growth, removals, and mortality as a percent of
inventory in the United States, 1952–2006
3.5
Percent of inventory
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1952
1962
1976
1986
1996
2006
1952
1962
1976
1986
1996
2006
0
1952
1962
1976
1986
1996
2006
.5
Growth
Removals
Mortality
Forest Carbon and Biomass
Forest Carbon
Concern over consequences of increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere has led the United States to
develop an annual inventory of greenhouse gas sources and sinks
since 1990 . The U .S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
prepares the official inventory for all sources to comply with
20
commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change . The U .S . Department of Agriculture and
the Forest Service provide the inventory for the agriculture and
forestry sectors . In 2006, gross greenhouse gas emissions in the
United States were equivalent to 7,054 million metric tons (15 .5
trillion pounds) of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2 eq .) .
Forests take in CO2 and water, store carbon in wood, and
release oxygen . The carbon stored in forests is released back into
the atmosphere when trees are burned, such as in forest fires,
or when dead trees and leaves decay . Forest management can
affect greatly the amount of carbon stored; vigorously growing
forests store more carbon than slow growing ones . When trees
are made into lumber or paper, some CO2 is released, but much
continues to be stored in the products or eventually in landfills .
Substituting wood for nonrenewable materials can also reduce
CO2 in the atmosphere by reducing fossil fuel energy use .
In 2006, a net 745 million metric tons (1 .6 trillion pounds) of
CO2 eq . were removed from the atmosphere and stored in forests
and forest products in the 48 conterminous States . This offsets
about 11 percent of gross U .S . CO2 emissions from all sources .
Net forest carbon stock change in the United States by carbon pool, 2006
North
South
West
-300
-200
Litter
Dead wood
Trees and understory
-100
Million metric tons CO2 eq./yr
0
100
Wood products
Landfilled wood
Net forest carbon stock change during 2006, 48 States plus part of Alaska—soil not included, 2006.
(Note: negative value corresponds to storage by forests.)
Forests stored an additional 204 million metric tons (0 .4 trillion
pounds) of CO2 eq . This biomass was harvested and burned for
energy as a substitute for fossil fuels, resulting in a net change
of zero atmospheric CO2 . Forests sequestered an additional
approximately 268 million metric tons CO2 eq . that had been
emitted during wildfires . This amount includes the contribution
21
of the non-CO2 gases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) .
Urban forests also sequestered carbon, estimated at 95 million
metric tons CO2 eq . (200 billion pounds) for 2006 .
Forest Biomass
The greatest amounts of biomass per area are located in the
Pacific Northwest . Moderate levels are located along the
Appalachian Mountains, from northern Georgia into central
Maine, encompassing much of the hardwood region of the
United States . The rest of the United States is occupied by forests
containing between 1 and 494 .2 tons/acre CO2 on average, with
infrequent extremely heavy biomass accumulations (865+ tons
CO2/acre) . Overall, the conterminous U .S . forests contain 16
billion metric tons of carbon in aboveground live biomass .
Aboveground live forest biomass stocks by county
in the United States, 2006
Wood for Energy
Forest biomass sustainably harvested for electricity generation
can represent an overall net reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions because the burning of nonrenewable fuels, such
as coal, is avoided . Across the United States, a great variety of
electric utility plants used wood in 2007 . Most of the electric
utilities are located near sources of forest biomass . Overall,
hundreds of electric utility plants are using wood for power
generation and, thus, avoiding emission of greenhouse gases .
However, relative to the use of fossil fuels, the use of forest
biomass as an energy source is small .
22
Location of avoided CO2 emissions (assuming coal burning)
of electric utilities using wood as a power generation source
in the United States, 2007
Forest Health and Invasives
Mortality rates relative to inventory, although currently at the
highest level in 50 years, remain less than 1 percent of inventory .
Much of the recent increase, however, may be attributed to a
confluence of local cyclic effects of forest stressors, such as the
recent increase in forest fires and large outbreaks of beetles .
Discerning whether the current high rates are beyond the range
of normal variability from a regional or national perspective is,
however, difficult .
23
Annual mortality as a percent of inventory in the United States, 1952,
1976, and 2006
1.20
Percent of inventory
1.00
1952
1976
2006
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Total
North
South
General Health Risk
West
Areas potentially at risk of 25 percent or higher mortality due
to insects and disease over the next 15 years are depicted in the
following graphic for the standing live volume of trees greater
than 1 inch in diameter .
Areas at risk of mortality due to insect and disease in the next
15 years.
24
Major Forest Insects
Aerial detection surveys provide information on the extent of
damage caused by major forest pests . Some of these pests include:
Southern Pine Beetle. Activity was at historically high levels
throughout the last 20 years, reflecting the widespread
availability of its preferred host, loblolly pine . Activity has
recently begun to decline .
Southern pine beetle infestation
28
Million acres
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Mountain Pine Beetle. Activity gradually declined from the 1980s
through 2002 . Massive killing of host trees, especially lodgepole
pine, greatly depleted the availability of suitable host trees .
Activity has again increased slightly since 2002 .
Mountain pine beetle infestation
12
Million acres
10
8
6
4
2
0
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Spruce Budworm. Activity has been declining the past 20 years,
with outbreaks restricted to the Lake States . Spruce budworm
outbreaks are cyclic, with epidemics occurring at 30- to 50-year
intervals as a new forest grows up from the old one killed by the
budworm .
25
Spruce budworm infestation
12
Million acres
10
8
6
4
2
0
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Western Spruce Budworm. Defoliation peaked from 1983 to 1992 .
Many trees weakened by budworm defoliation were subsequently
killed by bark beetle attacks .
Western spruce budworm infestation
16
14
Million acres
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Gypsy Moths. Gypsy moths defoliated almost 12 .9 million acres
of hardwoods in 1981, and defoliation averaged 2 .2 million
acres annually during the past 25 years . Activity reached
unprecedented levels as it spread south and west into better
habitat; the great reduction in recent years appears to reflect the
effect of Entomophaga maimaiga (a fungal pathogen of the Gypsy
moth) .
Photo by David McComb, http://www.bugwood.org
26
Gypsy moth infestation
16
14
Million acres
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Major Forest Diseases
Dozens of diseases affect U .S . forests each year . The following is
a list of the 10 most commonly found tree diseases in the United
States:
Disease
Beech bark disease
Dutch elm disease
Dogwood anthracnose
Dwarf mistletoes
Fusiform rust
Oak wilt
Port-Orford cedar root disease
Root rots
Sudden oak death
White pine blister rust
Primary Species Affected
beech
American elm
dogwood
conifers
southern pines
eastern oaks
Port-Orford cedar
many conifers and hardwoods
California oaks, tanoak
5-needle pines
Air Pollution
Ozone has been shown to alter forest ecosystems in areas of
high deposition . At high ozone levels, sensitive trees show
ozone-related injury; while lower ozone levels have been shown
to reduce photosynthesis of trees—affecting tree health .
The EPA provides information on the ozone concentration
at points across the United States . Combined with FIA data
collected on plots designed to detect ozone damage on sensitive
species, this information can be used to locate sites for further
research regarding air quality impacts on forest species .
EPA data show ambient ozone concentrations to be highest at
points in the Sierra Nevada, some areas of the semiarid Western
States, and scattered points along the southern Appalachian
piedmont, northeast coast, and Great Lakes ecological regions,
where major cities and travel corridors occur . Plot data from
FIA show similar trends with more damage detected on sensitive
27
plant species in the following areas than anywhere else in the
United States: the Sierra Nevada; the area east of Los Angeles;
the travel corridor of Interstate 85 across the Southern States
of Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina; the urban
hotspots of Atlanta, GA, Cincinnati, OH, and Buffalo, NY;
and the greater Washington, DC, area . The Midwestern
and Northwestern States, along with Maine, Vermont, and
New Hampshire, appear to have the lowest levels of ozone
concentration and damage to forest species . The following map
shows mean average ozone injury estimates and risk to forests of
injury from ozone exposure, 2000–2006 .
Mean ozone injury estimates and risk to forests of injury from ozone
exposure, 2000–2006
Invasive Species
Expanding global trade and travel have increased the risk of
introducing new, exotic organisms . When brought into new
ecosystems, exotic (invasive) species often have no natural
enemies and, therefore, can cause extensive damage . Invasive
plant species are defined as species being moved beyond their
natural range or natural zone of potential dispersal, including all
domesticated species and hybrids . The introduction of invasive
species can have major ecological and economic consequences
and can directly affect human health . There are an estimated
3,723 plants with species of origin outside the United States .
Areas with the highest rates of introduction tend to be along the
coasts or major inland waterways . In general, human disruptions
of natural communities, such as by soil alterations, removal of
vegetative cover, or suppression of natural disturbance regimes,
seems to promote opportunities for invasive species .
28
Area of forest affected by woody invasive species in the United States
Common name
Scientific name
Trees
Area
Source
000 ac.
Tallowtree,
Popcorntree
Triadica sebifera
3,818
2/
Tree-of-Heaven
Ailanthus altissima
3,444
3/
Silktree, Mimosa
Albizia julibrissin
1,127
2/
Chinaberrytree
Melia azedarach
1,080
3/
White mulberry
Morus alba
915
3/
Princesstree,
Paulownia
Paulownia tomentosa
726
3/
Siberian elm
Ulmus pumila
487
3/
Melaleuca
Melaleuca quinquenervia
212
3/
Bebb willow
Salix bebbiana
137
3/
Russian Olive
Elaeagnus angustifolia
101
3/
15,969
2/
Shrubs
Chinese /
European Privet
Ligustrum sinense
Non-native roses
(Multiflora, Macartney,
Cherokee)
Rosa multiflora,
bracteata, laevigata
5,339
2/
Japanese /
Glossy Privet
Ligustrum japonicum
1,656
2/
1,363
2/
Other honeysuckle (Amur, Lonicera amur, morrowii,
tatarica, fragrantissima
Morrow’s,
Tatarian, Sweet-breathof-spring)
Autumn Olive
Elaeagnus umbellata
648
2/
Sacred Bamboo, Nandina
Nandina domestica
229
2/
Winged Burning Bush
Euonymus alata
54
2/
Silverthorn,
Thorny Olive
Elaeagnus pungens
59
2/
Saltcedar
Tamarix ramosissima
35
4/
Vines
Japanese Honeysuckle
Lonicera japonica
46,959
2/
Kudzu
Pueraria montana
582
2/
Common/Bigleaf periwinkles
Vinca minor, major
240
2/
Nonnative climbing
yams-air yam/chinese
yam
Dioscorea oppositifolia,
alata, bulbifera
252
2/
Chinese/Japanese
wisteria
Wisteria sinensis,
floribunda
191
2/
(continued on next page)
29
(continued)
Common name
Scientific name
Area
Source
Vines
Winter Creeper
Euonymus fortunei
65
2/
Oriental Bittersweet
Celastrus orbiculatus
51
2/
English Ivy
Hedera helix
78
2/
TOTAL
85,816
1/ The total forest area affected by woody invasive species is not necessary the sum of the values
above, as these may be overlapping. Area reported is area affected by woody invasives, not actual
area covered by the invasive species.
2/ http://srsfia2.fs.fed.us/nonnative_invasive/southern_nnis.php
3/ FIADB, http://www.fia.fs.fed.us
4/ IWFIA data
Source: FIADB and FIA unit data
Additionally, invasive insects and pathogens threaten many
forests throughout the United States . This map shows the areas
and invasive species currently having major impacts .
Current invasive insects and pathogens threatening forests
in the United States, 2005
30
Wildland Fire
Wildland fires burn millions of acres of forest land in the United
States each year, and the intensity of fires and area burned have
been increasing in recent decades (Running 2006, Westerling et
al . 2006, Miller et al . 2008) . Federal agencies alone now spend
more than $1 billion annually on suppression efforts (U .S .
Government Accountability Office 2006) with costs increasing
rapidly . While less than 5 percent of wildfires become large
and uncontrollable, these fires can be especially problematic
and account for more than 95 percent of the area burned
(Running 2006, Peterson and McKenzie 2008) . Suppression
efforts directed at large severe wildfires are very costly and put
firefighters’ lives at risk . Substantial property damage may
result despite these efforts, with effects often greatest in the
wildland-urban interface—areas where homes and businesses
have been built among trees, brush, and other flammable
vegetation .
Annual area burned in the United States, 1960–2006
Million acres
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
The potential for an area of forest to experience wildfire
activity depends on several factors, including the likelihood of
ignition, the availability of dead fuel near the ground surface
and combustible fuel in the forest canopy, regional climate, and
year-to-year variations in weather that influence the length of
fire seasons . Understanding the relative contribution of these
factors, along with their spatial patterns and trends over time,
is important for developing management strategies to mitigate
wildfire hazards . For example, decades of fire suppression
resulting in the accumulation of dead fuel, small trees, and brush
is often cited as a cause of increased fire activity in some western
U .S . forest types . However, recent research shows that changes
in climate are closely associated with increased wildfire in some
areas of the West over the last few decades . Increases in spring
and summer temperatures and decreases in precipitation have
resulted in longer fire seasons in these areas, along with increases
31
in the burn time of large fires (Running 2006, Westerling et
al . 2006) . In areas where climate change appears to be a major
driver of wildfire activity, ecological restoration and management
of hazardous fuel alone may not be sufficient to alter recent
wildfire trends (Westerling et al . 2006) . The availability of spatial
information describing vegetation and fuel conditions, coupled
with information on likely climate trends, can help target
fuel reduction projects for maximum effectiveness and could
improve land use planning that reduces wildfire risk to human
communities .
The following map of wildand fire potential combines spatial
information about fire behavior and fire probability under
extreme weather conditions . Fire behavior includes both crown
fire potential and surface fire potential, while fire probability
includes both fire weather and historic fire occurrence .
Wildland fire potential in the conterminous United States by risk class
Legend
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Very low
Barren
500 miles
Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection
A/urban/developed
Water
Source: Wildland fire potential data were provided by Jim Menakis, Fire Modeling Institute, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Forest Service. Geographic base data were provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service and the National Atlas of the United
States.
Timber Products and Residues
Solidwood and paper products consumed in the United States
require roundwood harvest in the United States and other
countries, plus recycled paper and solidwood products . Since
the late 1980s, roundwood harvest for export has declined,
and roundwood equivalent of imports has increased . Domestic
roundwood harvest increased from 1950 through the mid-1980s
and has remained steady since then, maintaining a volume of 15
billion cubic feet in 2006 .
32
Total and per capita roundwood consumption by category, 1965–2006
80
25
70
Billion cubic feet
60
50
15
40
10
30
20
5
Cubic feet per capita
20
10
0
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
0
Year
Harvest for domestic use
Exports
Net imports
Per capita consumption
Total domestic roundwood harvest has been stable to declining
due to increasing imports and an increase in use of recycled
paper . With these increases, total consumption of solidwood
and paper products has increased steadily since 1950 . In 2006,
consumption for the North, South, and West was 55 .7, 116 .5,
and 35 .4 billion dry short tons, respectively .
Solidwood and paper products consumption and material sources with
region of roundwood harvest, 1977–2006
350
250
200
150
100
50
2005
2001
1997
1993
1989
1985
1981
0
1977
Billion dry tons
300
Year
North
South
West
Recycled fiber
Imports
Nonwood materials
33
Drivers of Timber Demand
Demands for the products and services of forests are driven
largely by population and disposable income . Per capita
disposable income (constant 1996 U .S . dollars) more than
doubled between 1965 and 2006, increasing from $10 .6
thousand in 1965 to $25 .9 thousand in 2006 . Total U .S .
population increased by 54 percent during this time, reaching
299 .2 million in 2006 .
30.0
350
25.0
300
Population
20.0
250
200
Disposable income per capita
15.0
150
10.0
100
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
0
1975
0.0
1970
50
1965
5.0
Population (millions)
Disposable income (thousand 1996 dollars)
Per capita disposable personal income and population, 1965–2006
Year
Imports and Exports
Imports accounted for an increasing share of the Nation’s timber
supply, reaching a maximum value of 29 percent in 2004 and
2005 . While most of the imports originated in Canada, there
were increased shipments from Chile, New Zealand, Finland,
and other countries during this time . However, this trend
reversed in 2006 when imports as a percent of consumption
dropped to 28 percent . Exports as a percent of production
peaked at 16 percent in 1991 and generally declined after that
point, reflecting a strong dollar and decreased demands in
key markets such as Japan . Exports as a percent of production
declined to 11 percent in 2006 . Because of their effects on U .S .
harvest, both imports and exports affect the condition of the
domestic forest resource .
34
Imports as a percent of consumption and exports as a percent of
production of industrial roundwood, 1965–2006
35
30
Exports as percent of production
Percent
25
20
15
10
Imports as percent of consumption
5
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
0
Year
Shifting Timber Sources
Changes in public land policy have had significant impacts
on private forests . As harvesting declined on public lands in
the West, harvesting increased on private lands in the East,
particularly in the South . Overall, domestic harvesting has
remained steady to declining for the past decade, and increased
demand has been supported by increased imports and paper
recycling .
Growing stock removals in the United States by owner group,
1952–2006
16.0
14.0
Private
Billion cubic feet
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
Public
2.0
0.0
1952
1976
1986
Year
1996
2006
35
Harvest Methods and Efficiency
Timber harvests occur on 10 .8 million acres annually . Selective
harvesting is prevalent on 61 percent of harvested acres in the
United States . Clearcutting, used on the remaining 39 percent
of harvested forest, is most prevalent in areas of managed
plantations in the South and areas in the North where pioneer
species such as aspen, jack pine, and spruce-fir—which need
open sunlight to regenerate—are being managed for timber
production . In the West, clearcutting is generally followed by
planting to augment natural regeneration .
Proportion of harvested timber land in the United States by method of
harvest, 2001–2005
80
Clearcut
Partial cut
Percent of harvested area
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
North
Logging Residues
South
West
Total
Logging residues are portions of trees’ stems left behind after
logging, and are increasingly being considered as a possible
resource for bioenergy use . Overall, this material has ranged
from an equivalent of 20 to 30 percent of the material taken
for products . In 2006, logging residues totaled 4 .5 billion cubic
feet . Even after leaving a portion of this material for nutrient
cycling and soil protection, the volume has the potential to be a
significant resource .
36
36
Logging residues in the United States as a percent of total harvest by
region, 1952, 1976, and 2006
Percent of harvested material
35
1952
1976
2006
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Total
North
South
West
Nontimber Forest Products
Nontimber forest products involve more species than timber
products and include trees, woody and herbaceous plants,
fungi, and other biological material harvested from within and
on the edges of forests . Plant parts harvested include the roots,
tubers, leaves, bark, twigs and branches, fruit, sap, and resin, as
well as the wood (Chamberlain et al . 1998) . These products are
commonly classified into five product categories:
•
•
•
•
•
Medicinal Plants
Food and Forage
Floral
Arts and Crafts
Horticultural
As demand for these products grows, it becomes increasingly
important to monitor the removal of products from forests,
and the effects of their removal on the viability of current and
future forest ecosystems . However, despite the importance of
these products, they are difficult to track because of the revolving
variety of products they encompass, and regional variability
within product categories . Domestic values of nontimber forest
products may be estimated from contract and permit sales on
public lands operated by the Forest Service and the Bureau of
Land Management . These extrapolations assume that national
forests account for approximately 20 percent of nontimber
forest products and Bureau land accounts for about 2 percent
of nontimber forest products . If these assumptions are true, the
wholesale domestic value of nontimber forest products (not
including personal use) exceeds $600 million .
37
Estimated wholesale value of wild-harvested nontimber resources in
the United States extrapolated from Forest Service and Bureau of Land
Management sales receipts
Product category
2005
2006
2007
Million U.S. dollars (unadjusted for inflation)
Landscaping
35
29
31
Crafts/florals
87
93
152
Regeneration seed/
cones
5
3
4
Edible fruits, nuts,
sap
46
37
46
Grass/forage
24
20
20
2
2
2
Subtotal
199
183
254
Fuelwood
Herbs, medicinals
271
286
331
Posts and poles
33
28
26
Christmas trees
82
69
71
386
382
428
585
565
682.4
Subtotal
Total
Domestic nontimber forest products of particular national
economic importance include Christmas trees, maple syrup,
furbearing animals, and products related to the arts and crafts
industry . Economically important exports include pecans, floral
products, wild blueberries, ginseng, and honey . Overall, the
United States is a net importer of nontimber forest products,
particularly vanilla beans (from Madagascar), which heavily
influence the net value of the U .S . nontimber forest product
trade .
Nontimber forest products trade and wholesale values in the United
States
Category
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Million U.S. dollars (unadjusted for inflation)
U.S. imports minus
exports
244
205
71
105
61
Total wholesale
value adjusted for
trade
461
425
270
288
315
Total wholesale
value adjusted for
trade, plus firewood,
posts and poles,
and Christmas trees
853
801
656
670
743
38
Ecosystem Services
Healthy forest ecosystems are ecological life-support systems . In
addition to traditional products, forests provide a full suite of
goods and services that are vital to human health and livelihood,
natural assets we call environmental services or ecosystem
services .
Many of these goods and services are traditionally viewed as
free benefits to society, or “public goods”—wildlife habitat
and diversity, watershed services, carbon storage, and scenic
landscapes, for example . Lacking a formal market, these natural
assets are traditionally absent from society’s balance sheet; their
critical contributions are often overlooked in public, corporate,
and individual decisionmaking .
While it is difficult to establish the value of ecosystem services,
an illustrative subset of ecosystem services can be highlighted
for which actual markets and/or payments to landowners exist .
Although this example does not measure the full value of the
benefits supplied by forests to society, it does measure the
amount of revenues landowners actually received for producing
specific ecosystem services .
Payments to forest landowners from all sources from which data
are available were $553 million in 2007 with Federal agencies
providing $248 million, States $12 million, and nongovernment
sources accounting for $294 million . Of the nongovernment
sources, greenhouse gas offsets amounted to $5 .5 million,
conservation easements $110 million, and fee simple purchases
$176 million .
From 2005 to 2007, government payments—Federal and
State—remained fairly constant, ranging from $256 million
in 2005 to $260 million in 2007 . In contrast, payments
by nongovernment organizations for carbon offsets and
conservation easements grew from $213 million in 2005 to $294
million in 2007 .
39
39
Payments by government and nongovernment organizations for carbon
offsets and conservation easements, 2005–2007
300
Million dollars
250
200
150
100
50
0
2005
Federal
Nongovernment
State
2006
2007
For the example presented, the distribution of payments among
States for ecosystem services from all sources in 2007 is shown
in the following map . Alaska landowners received the lowest
payments ($276,000), while Georgia received the highest ($52
million) .
Average revenues from ecosystem services by State, 2005–2007
Toward Stronger Policies and Actions
The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 takes a
significant first step towards facilitating landowner participation
in emerging markets for ecosystem services . Section 2709 of
the conservation title requires the Secretary of Agriculture, in
consultation with other agencies and interests, to “establish
40
technical guidelines that measure the ecosystem services benefits
from conservation and land management activities .”
To implement this act, a governmentwide Conservation
and Land Management Environmental Services Board was
established . The purpose of this board is to assist the Secretary of
Agriculture in adopting the technical guidelines that the Federal
Government will use to assess ecosystem services provided by
conservation and land management activities and provide for
reporting protocols, registries, and verification processes .
Technical guidelines will focus on scientifically rigorous and
economically sound methods for quantifying environmental
services, such as carbon sequestration, air and water quality,
wetlands, and endangered species benefits, in an effort to
facilitate the participation of farmers, ranchers, and forest
landowners in emerging ecosystem markets .
Improving our ability to quantify ecosystem services will
enable them to be taken into account, alongside merchantable
timber and nontimber forest products when decisions are made
regarding forest resources .
Learn more at http://www .fs .fed .us/ecosystemservices/ .
Water Supplies
In the conterminous 48 States, 24 percent of the water supply
originates on Federal land . Land owned by the Forest Service
serves 18 percent of originating water sources . Regardless of
ownership, about 53 percent of the conterminous water supply
originates on forest land . National forests and grasslands supply
51 percent of the water supply in the West .
Water Uses
Estimates of water use in the United States indicate that about
408 billion gallons per day were withdrawn for all uses during
2000 . This total has varied less than 3 percent since 1985 as
withdrawals have stabilized for the two largest uses—thermoelectric power and irrigation . In 2000, about 48 percent of all
withdrawals were used for thermoelectric power and 34 percent
for irrigation .
Watershed Management
Water quality is becoming an increasingly serious concern in
the United States, as well as globally . High-quality watersheds
trap sediments; slow runoff; and provide cooling shade and
excellent habitat for wildlife, fish, and plants . Potential watershed
management issues include habitat loss and fragmentation,
41
hydrologic alterations, nutrient enrichment of surface waters,
and pathogens and toxins . Forests offer significant mitigation
opportunities for water management .
Effective watershed management must be based on a
planning process that integrates both scientific analysis and
public participation . To explore current efforts in watershed
management, visit http://www .partnershipresourcecenter .org/
watersheds/index .php .
Drought
Another aspect of water is the lack of it . Many forests have
recently experienced fires of unprecedented intensity and extent,
and this is partially the result of forest management practices
that have allowed decades of dead wood (fuels) to accumulate .
This has been exacerbated by climate variability in the form of
prolonged periods of drought that have left forests in tinder dry
conditions, and, thus, more susceptible to intense fires . Public
resource agencies are shifting their fire policies from complete
suppression to recognition that fire is an integral component
of the landscape . Presuppression forests experienced fires more
frequently, but these fires were less destructive . These less intense
fires served as a means of keeping fuels from accumulating on
the forest floor and maintaining low stand density . Current
information on drought conditions can be found at NOAA’s
Hydrologic Information Center at http://www .nws .noaa .gov/
oh/hic/current/drought/index .html and the University of
Nebraska–Lincoln, National Drought Mitigation Center
at http://drought .unl .edu/risk/us/usimpacts .htm .
Forest Wildlife
Wildlife and Climate Change
Wildlife biologists face many challenges in developing recommendations to manage wildlife habitat under a changing climate .
The Forest Service has developed a consistent and holistic
approach to analyzing potential threats of climate change to
terrestrial wildlife habitat . The terrestrial climate stress index was
developed to rank areas along a gradient of high to low future
climate stress to terrestrial wildlife habitat, based on components
that quantify the degree of change in temperature, precipitation,
habitat types, and habitat quality . Areas of relatively high or low
stress across the coterminous United States can be identified
in a consistent and repeatable manner . To evaluate future
climate change threats with existing threats to wildlife habitat
management, this information can be integrated with the
geographic location of current stressors—for example, intensive
42
land use—or with areas having large numbers of at-risk species .
The Forest Service analysis to date indicates that the areas of
greatest stress to terrestrial habitats from future climate change
were associated with transitions between major biomes or in
areas of high topographic relief . The least sensitive geographic
areas on this relative scale were in the southern Great Plains,
the Appalachian Mountains, and the eastern coast of Florida .
The States with the greatest proportional area in relatively high
climate stress include Missouri and Arkansas . The least stress
States include Texas and Oklahoma .
Wildlife habitats stressed by climate change
Land Ownership and Forest Wildlife
Conservation of biological diversity on public forest lands is
often a focus in resource planning . However, privately owned
forest lands also make an important contribution to the
conservation of species that are at risk of extinction . At-risk
species are defined as those species listed under the U .S .
Endangered Species Act or with a global conservation status rank
of critically imperiled, imperiled, or vulnerable . Analyses by the
Forest Service and key partners indicate that two-thirds of the
watersheds in the conterminous United States contain at-risk
species associated with private forests, with counts ranging from
1 to 101 species . Those watersheds with the greatest number and
density of such species are found in the Southeast, Midwest, and
west coast States . Many private forests are threatened by land-use
conversion . Those forests projected to experience the greatest
increase in housing density within the next 25 years—and with
relatively high densities of at-risk species—are found in over 100
watersheds, most of them in the Southeastern States .
43
Number of at-risk species that occur on privately owned forest land
by watershed
Area of privately owned forest land predicted to experience increased
housing density by 2030
44
Forest Recreation
In the United States, with a few exceptions, public forest lands
at all levels of government are open for public recreation . Open
Federal lands include forested areas on national forests, national
parks, Bureau of Land Management lands, wildlife refuges, and
most other federally managed land . Open State forest lands
include State forests, State parks, wildlife management areas,
and other State management areas . Local government forests
include municipal watersheds, local parks, local forest preserves,
greenways, and other local forest areas .
Forest industry and other corporate and noncorporate private
forest lands are usually also open to recreational uses, although
access to them is more restricted than is the case with public
lands . Over half of forest industry lands are in the South . Large
portions of other corporation forest lands (not owned by forest
industry) are located in the West and South regions . Almost half
of the family and individually owned private forest land is in the
South region; nearly 36 percent is in the North . The National
Woodland Ownership Survey estimated that about 54 percent
of family forest land was open only to family or friends, and no
others (Butler 2008) . Just 14 .6 percent of the family forest area
was open to the public with permission of the owner . Almost 8
percent of the family forest area was leased in the last 5 years for
recreational uses . The percentage of nonindustrial forest available
for public recreation has been on a downward trend over the last
three decades .
Recreation Use of Forests
The top 10 forest recreation activities, in terms of numbers
of times people have participated, are walking for pleasure;
viewing and photographing natural scenery; viewing and
photographing flowers, trees, and other forest vegetation; viewing
and photographing birds; viewing and photographing wildlife;
day hiking; visiting wild areas; off-highway driving; attending
outdoor family gatherings; and visiting nature centers . The
annual total number of forest recreation activity days among
these activities ranges from an estimated high of almost 7 .5
billion to just over 680 million . Snowmobiling, mountain
climbing, cross-country skiing, rock climbing and snowshoeing
engage much smaller numbers of recreation activity days, but
still the estimated totals add up to sizeable numbers ranging from
about 20 million to over 62 million .
The percentage of forest-based activity days that occur on public
lands ranges from under 50 percent (for example, small-game
hunting, horseback riding, off-road driving, and gathering
mushrooms and berries) to over 75 percent (for example, visiting
wilderness, day hiking, visiting nature centers, and backpacking) .
45
Over all activities, the percentage of forest-based recreation
activity days that occur in urban forests ranges between roughly
15 percent to around 45 percent .
Millions of annual forest recreation activity days* and percentage on
public and private forest land in the United States by activity, 2007–2008
Forest recreation activity
Number of activity
days in forest
Percent on public
forest
Walk for pleasure
7,493.30
53.8
44.5
View/photograph natural
scenery
6,170.60
61.9
31.8
View/photograph wildflowers, trees, etc.
4,858.94
55.4
36.3
View/photograph birds
3,738.27
51.3
37.6
View/photograph other
wildlife
3,086.85
57.7
32.2
Day hiking
1,234.82
76.2
34
Visit a wilderness or
primitive area
947.559
76.4
24.6
Off-highway driving
837.541
50.4
23.2
Family gathering
805.291
55.9
43.5
683.85
77.6
45.2
Gather mushrooms, berries, etc.
623.372
47.9
32.3
Mountain biking
463.324
60.2
32.1
Picnicking
455.942
68.4
44.4
Developed camping
355.966
72.8
21.3
Big game hunting
279.781
45.7
16.5
Primitive camping
211.448
75.8
21.4
Backpacking
198.787
78.5
22.1
Visit historic sites
182.755
60
39.1
Horseback riding on trails
177.453
50.8
34.4
Small game hunting
161.488
46.8
17..4
Visit prehistoric/archaeological sites
138.932
70
41.6
Snowmobiling
62.111
55.1
27.4
Mountain climbing
57.091
78.6
20.5
Cross country skiing
41.874
60.5
33.7
Rock climbing
34.088
68.8
26.9
Snowshoeing
19.938
60.2
27.6
Visit nature
centers, etc.
Percent in urban
forests
Source: NSRE 2005–2008, Versions 1-3b
*Recreation activity day=recreation in each activity equivalent to the activity completed by one
person in 1 day.
46
Overall, between 2000 and 2007, recreation use increased
modestly . As reported in Forest History Today (Cordell 2008),
the total number of people who participated in one or more
outdoor activities grew by 4 .4 percent between 2000 and
2007 . At the same time, the number of recreation activity
days, summed across all participants and activities, increased
approximately 25 percent . The number and capacity of public
and private forest-based recreation sites have remained about
constant or increased slightly .
Growth in number of participants and recreation days across 60 outdoor
recreation activities on all land in the United States, 2000–2007
(reproduced from Forest History Today article, Cordell 2008)
100
230
210
Number who participate (million)
80
Number of activity days (billion)
190
60
Billions of days
Millions who participate
250
170
150
2000
2007
40
Caribbean and Pacific Forests
Island Forests
The U .S . Caribbean Islands are composed of Puerto Rico and
the U .S . Virgin Islands . In general, the Caribbean Islands
are a 3,900 mile arc of islands, tectonically uplifted from the
sea floor separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Caribbean
Sea . Low-lying islands often are capped with limestone from
ancient coral reefs, and other islands exhibit volcanic activity
that has pushed up steep peaks that divert the moisture-laden
northeasterly trade winds upward, greatly increasing rainfall .
The U .S . affiliated Pacific Islands include American Samoa,
Guam, Hawaii, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the
Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands, and the Republic of Palau . These
islands span a vast and diverse area from Hawaii, 3,900 miles
west of the U .S . mainland, to Palau, about 566 miles east of
the Philippines . Land masses vary widely and include small
coral atolls, small sand islands, moderate-sized islands of mixed
limestone and volcanic substrates, and large, high-elevation,
volcanic islands .
47
Geographic location of U.S. affiliated islands relative to the U.S.
mainland
Tropical islands serve as the proverbial “canary in the coal
mine,” alerting society to the problems inherent to living on a
constrained land base . The challenges we face in our mainland
forests—such as land use change, altered fire regimes, nonnative
species invasions, insect and disease outbreaks, climate change,
and other human-caused disturbances—become critical for
societies with restricted, more immediately finite resource bases,
such as those found on these islands .
Tropical island forests are intimately linked to the surrounding
ocean . The climate of the ocean impacts island vegetation,
topography, and soils . Conversely, the islands influence the
adjacent ocean as vegetation, soils, and pollutants make their way
to the aquatic environment . Forests filter sediment, keeping it on
the islands . Mangrove and coastal strand forests buffer the islands
against the ocean’s erosive force and storm surges . Forests play a
key role in keeping both terrestrial and aquatic resources in good
health .
FIA offers resource monitoring assistance in the tropical
Caribbean Islands of Puerto Rico and the U .S . Virgin Islands,
the Pacific Islands of American Samoa, Guam, the Republic of
Palau, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands,
the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall
Islands, and Hawaii . Inventories are conducted on a rotating
periodic basis (5 years in the Caribbean, 10 years in the Pacific)
across island groups .
48
Population, land area, forest area, and percent forest cover for U.S.
affiliated island groups
Region and
island group
Population
Land area
Forest area
Forest
cover
acres
acres
percent
Caribbean
Puerto Rico
3,808,610
2,191,816
1,261,332
58
108,612
85,592
52,478
61
57,663
48,433
43,630
90
U.S. Virgin Is.
Pacific
Am. Samoa
Guam
173,456
135,661
63,832
47
Palau
20,842
111,544
96,689
87
CNMI
84,546
73,536
53,664
73
FSM
107,862
149,805
76,526
51
RMI
61,815
44,477
43,143
97
1,211,537
4,127,336
1,490,902
43
5,634,943
6,951,339
3,439,298
67
Hawaii
Islands total
The Caribbean Islands
Puerto Rico and the U .S . Virgin Islands were almost entirely
deforested for agriculture by the mid-20th century . Forest
cover has steadily increased on Puerto Rico as economic
activities moved away from agriculture, resulting in abandoned
agricultural lands being re-colonized by forest . The naturally high
species diversity of Caribbean tropical forests has been further
augmented by human introduction of tree species from around
the world, some beneficial and others invasive .
Species diversity per sampled acres in the Caribbean and Pacific Islands
Species found per sampled acre
18
(50 spp.)
(3.3 ac)
16
(128 spp.)
(9 ac)
14
12
(105 spp.)
(11 ac)
10
8
6
(48 spp.)
(7.6 ac)
(305 spp.)
(52.7 ac)
4
2
0
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Is.
American
Samoa
Guam
Palau
This has also occurred in the U .S . Virgin Islands . As urbanization
49
increases, however, forest loss is accelerating . The U .S . Virgin
Islands lost 7 percent of their forest cover from 1994 to 2004,
mostly on the more densely populated island of St . Thomas .
The Pacific Islands
General trends across the Pacific Islands show that in areas more
accessible to tourists, urbanization has led to decreases in forest
cover . However, there is some recovery and maturation of forests
in other areas that in the past had been disturbed or denuded,
especially from the effects of World War II and agriculture .
The most important forestry concerns within the Pacific Islands
involve losses of forest cover owing to urbanization, damage from
invasive species, and the erosion of soils with subsequent siltation
of coral reefs . Island resource managers are anxious to cultivate
additional partnerships to strengthen their efforts to reforest and
reclaim areas via planting and control of exotics .
Terms
Forest land —Land at least 120 feet wide and 1 acre in size with at
least 10 percent tree cover (or equivalent stocking) by live trees
of any size, including land that formerly had such tree cover and
that will be naturally or artificially regenerated and is not subject
to nonforest use(s) such as extensive livestock or human activity
that prevent normal tree regeneration and succession .
Growing stock volume —Live trees on timber land of commercial
species meeting specified standards of quality and vigor . Cull
trees are excluded . Includes only trees 5 inches in diameter or
larger at 4 .5 feet above ground .
Growth (Net Annual ) —The net increase in the volume of growing
stock trees during a specified year . Components include the
increment in net volume of trees at the beginning of the specific
year surviving to its end, plus the net volume of trees reaching
the minimum size class during the year, minus the volume of
trees that died during the year, and minus the net volume of trees
that became cull trees during the year .
Hardwood —A dicotyledonous tree, usually broad-leaved and
deciduous .
IUCN Protection Categories —The International Union for
Conservation of Nature protected area classifications are as
follows:
Category I is defined as (a) an area of land and/or sea
possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems,
geological or physiological features and/or species,
50
or available primarily for scientific research and or
environmental monitoring, or (b) a large area of unmodified
or slightly modified land and/or sea, retaining its natural
character and influence, without permanent or significant
habitation, that is protected and managed so as to preserve
its natural condition .
Category II land is a natural area of land and/or sea
designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or
more ecosystems for present and future generations; (b)
exclude exploitation or occupation critical to the purposes
of designation of the area; and (c) provide a foundation for
spiritual, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities,
all of which must be environmentally and culturally
comparable .
Category III land is an area containing one, or more, specific
natural or natural/cultural feature that is of outstanding or
unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative or
aesthetic qualities, or cultural significance .
Category IV is an area of land and/or sea subject to active
intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the
maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of
specific species .
Category V is an area of land with coast and sea as
appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature
over time has produced an area of distinct character with
significant aesthetic, ecological, and/or cultural value,
and often with high biological diversity . Safeguarding
the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the
protection, maintenance, and evolution of such an area .
Category VI is an area containing predominantly unmodified
natural systems, managed to ensure long-term protection
and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at
the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and
services to meet community needs .
Logging residues —The unused portions of growing-stock trees cut
or killed by logging and left in the woods .
Mortality —The volume of sound wood in growing-stock trees that
died from natural causes during a specified year .
National forest —An ownership class of Federal lands, designated
by Executive order or statute as national forests or purchase
units, and other lands under the administration of the Forest
Service .
51
Other Federal —An ownership class of Federal lands other than
those administered by the Forest Service . Primarily lands owned
by the Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, U .S .
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U .S . Departments of Energy
and Defense .
Other forest land —Forest land other than timber land and
reserved forest land . It includes available land that is incapable
of producing annually at least 20 cubic feet per acre of
industrial wood under natural conditions because of adverse site
conditions, such as sterile soils, dry climate, poor drainage, high
elevation, steepness, or rockiness .
Removals —The net volume of growing stock trees removed from
the inventory during a specified year by harvesting, cultural
operations such as timber stand improvement, or land clearing .
Reserved forest land —Forest land withdrawn from timber
utilization through statute, administrative regulation, or
designation . Does not include all land in IUCN protection
categories .
Roundwood products —Logs, bolts, and other round timber
generated from harvesting trees for industrial or consumer use .
Softwood —A coniferous tree, usually evergreen, having needles or
scale-like leaves .
Timber land —Forest land that is capable of producing crops of
industrial wood and not withdrawn from timber utilization by
statute or administrative regulation . (Note: Areas qualifying as
timber land are capable of producing in excess of 20 cubic feet
per acre per year of industrial wood in natural stands .)
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Web Resources
Forest Service
http://www .fs .fed .us
Forest Inventory and Analysis
http://fia .fs .fed .us
National Resource Assessment
http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa
Forest Health
http://www .fs .fed .us/foresthealth/
http://www .na .fs .fed .us/sustainability/index .shtm
National Report on Sustainable Forests
http://www .fs .fed .us/research/sustain
55
Recreation/Wilderness
http://www .srs .fs .usda .gov/trends
http://www .fs .fed .us/recreation
Forest Wildlife
http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa
Fire
http://www .nfic .gov
http://www .fs .fed .us/fire/
Forest Products
http://ncrs2 .fs .fed .us/4801/fiadb/rpa_tpo/wc_rpa_tpo .asp
http://www .fpl .fs .fed .us
Nontimber Forest Products
http://www .sfp .forprod .vt .edu
http://www .fao .org/forestry/site/6367/en
http://ifcae .org/ntfp
Forest Ownership
http://familyforestresearchcenter .org/projects01 .html
Protected Areas
http://www .IUCN .org
http://www .consbio .org
http://www .protectedlands .net/main/home .php
Water Resources
http://water .usgs .gov/watuse
http://www .partnershipresourcecenter .org/watersheds/index .php
Drought
http://www .drought .unl .edu
http://www .nws .noaa .gov/oh/hic/current/drought/index .html
Global Forest Information
http://www .fao .org/forestry
56
The U .S . Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its
programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability,
and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion,
sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all
or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program .
(Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs .) Persons with disabilities who
require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille,
large print, audiotape, etc .) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202)
720-2600 (voice and TDD) . To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA,
Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S .W ., Washington,
D .C . 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD) .
USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer .
FS-801
Revised September 2009
| File Type | application/pdf |
| File Modified | 2010-03-09 |
| File Created | 2010-03-09 |